labourers better, and pay them better wages, and feed them better.

66

Have they had arms taken from them?-Not from any that were decidedly leading agitators.

"Then the Whitefeet exhibit a feeling that those persons have not been free from the faults they charge upon other persons?-Certainly."-H. C., 1832. Nos. 904-14.

Nevertheless, it is true that the spirit of disobedience to the law which has grown out of political agitation has contributed indirectly to the spread of Whiteboy disturbances; and, in particular, that the recent resistance to tithes has led to extremities which probably alarmed and afflicted the authors of it. On this subject there isan impressive statement of Lord Wellesley, in a dispatch already referred to.

"I cannot (he says) employ words of sufficient strength to express my solicitude that his Majesty's government should fix the deepest attention on the intimate connexion marked by the strongest characters in all these transactions between the system of agitation and its inevitable consequence, the system of combination leading to violence and outrage; they are inseparably cause and effect; nor can I (after the most attentive consideration of the dreadful scenes passing under my view), by any effort of my understanding, separate one from the other in that unbroken chain of indissoluble connexion*."

That the outrages connected with the resistance to tithe in 1832 and 1833, were not merely aggravated by political agitation, but sprung directly from it, is certain; but that, in a general point of view, there has been no indissoluble connexion between Whiteboy crime and agitation is so notorious that it is evident that Lord Wellesley could not have meant to extend

* Papers relating to the State of Ireland, 1834, p. 4.

N

the application of his words beyond the particular case in question. The Whiteboy disturbances originated and flourished at a time when the Catholics had no political organization, no leaders, no association, no means of expressing a joint opinion; when, in short, The political agitation, as a system, was unknown*. disturbances before 1815, of which an account has been already given, could not have arisen from political agitation, more than the death of Socrates could have been caused by the Inquisition. Agitation may have heightened the disease; but the disease itself and the predisposing causes were already in existence.

* In point of fact, the little tendency to agitation which existed at the end of the last century in Ireland was repressed by the fear lest the political leaders should be confounded with the peasant insurgents.

"In the succeeding years of 1764, 1765, and 1766 (says Mr. Wyse, in his History of the Catholic Association, 1 vol. p. 89.), the Catholics were too much alarmed by the outrages amongst the lower classes to think of assuming any corporate form which might excite or justify a suspicion of the slightest connexion with these disturbances. It is a remarkable feature in the early history of this body, that it seems throughout to have had no communication or sympathy with the people. Neither in a collective nor individual capacity do the Catholic gentry and clergy appear to have had much control over the lower classes of their communion. Mr. O'Connor frequently complains in terms of just bitterness of the more than Protestant severity of the Catholic landholders; and the thunders of the episcopacy, and the exhortations of the lower clergy, in the insurrection of Munster, fell idly on the affections and fears of the infuriated peasantry."

179

CHAPTER IV.

MEANS EMPLOYED IN IRISH DISTURBANCES.

HAVING, in the last chapter, explained the general character of the Whiteboy disturbances, and the objects which are sought to be attained by them, we now proceed to consider the means employed for arriving at these ends.

In order to understand the machinery by which this system is worked, it will be in the first place desirable to ascertain the description of persons concerned in working it. In general it may be said that they are the worst characters among the labouring agricultural population, frequently young unmarried men employed as servants by farmers. These persons, it will be observed, are not suffering under any immediate distress; their objects can only be general, to avert a state of things by which persons of their class actually, and by which they themselves may hereafter, suffer. In some cases, however, persons already ejected have taken part in the outrages, and at any rate, have been actively employed in disseminating a spirit of disturbance, and in rousing the peasantry to avenge their wrongs*. The leaders of factions (on which subject more will be said at the end of the chapter), likewise are often concerned in heading the Whiteboy outrages.

The following testimonies will explain this point.
Major Willcocks.

"What description of persons have you found engaged as

* See above, p. 80.

disturbers of the peace in Tipperary; the very lowest class, or something about that?-I think the very lowest class of peasantry and servant-boys; what I mean by servant-boys are men hired with the farmers by the year."-H. C., 1824, p. 99. Of what description have been the persons punished under the Insurrection Act; poor and ignorant, or otherwise?— Mostly poor and ignorant.

66

"Are you acquainted with the extent of organization to which this combination had extended?—I have some idea of it; I think there was for some time a better class than they concerned in it. The farmers, at one time, rather encouraged it, for they thought they would be benefitted themselves; and when the country was getting better, and when we were putting these fellows down in the county of Limerick, a proclamation issued from what they called the Commons of Rathkeale, stating that no man should hold more than one farm; that any man who held more farms than one should give them up, that they might themselves have a chance of getting one.

66

Do you think that this combination consisted of any among a higher class of people than those who were generally the executive persons in it?—I think it might; but no person of that description ever came to my own knowledge. I may have reason to think there was some person behind the curtain that I was never able to reach, but I never knew such a person; I think there were persons encouraging them who were themselves of a better class.”—H. L., 1824, pp. 58, 59.

George Bennett, Esq :

"Of what description were the persons who were transported under the Insurrection Act from those counties?There were very few actually transported in the counties to which I refer; the persons convicted were, with one exception, persons of the lower order of labourers or farmers. Labourers and farmers in Ireland, of the lower description, are united, I conceive, generally; they both labour and have also small farms, people of that description,-cottiers is the most accurate description.

"Of what description is the one person who was not of that order?—He was the son of a farmer who, in the good times, had a considerable profit rent, whose property fell very much, and who at this moment, I understand, has a profit rent of about 4007. a-year, incumbered by debts that he contracted in good times.

"Do you know whether any of the persons convicted were leaders of disturbances?—I believe that man was; and I have every reason to believe it, because on his person a written paper was found which contained the oath which I understand he was circulating; it had been found some time before, and contained a number of directions respecting it.

"Of what description in general are the leaders of disturbances?—I cannot form an opinion, except in that instance, further than this, that in other counties I have heard they were persons of a low description; I do not know of any ostensible leader of any high description; none of moderate property, except the person to whom I have alluded*."-H. L., 1824, pp. 32, 33.

Major Powell:

"Of what description have been the persons in general who have committed outrages?-Of the lowest description; persons who have no homes or character."-H. L., 1824, p. 106.

Major Warburton :—

"What was the description of the captain, or the person whom you described as a captain, who was taken in the barony of Inchiquin?-He was a very wretched person.

Was he a peasant or a farmer?-He was a peasant—a labourer I think.

"A common labouring man?—Yes.

"Was he one of those that found his way from the neighbouring county, or one who had been prepared by the swearers

* With regard to this individual, Mr. Bennett gives some further details in H. C., 1824, p. 82.