sent her five sons to war, and, knowing that a battle had taken place, she waited for news on the outside of the city. Some one came up to her and told her that all her sons had perished. "You vile slave," said she, "that is not what I wanted to know; I want to know how fares my country." "Victorious," said he. "Willingly then," said she, "do I hear of the death of my sons." When Croesus was advised by the oracle to obtain a Greek ally in an approaching war, he sent for aid to Sparta; and on one occasion, when Athens and Megara had been long at war, they left the decision of their quarrel to a commission from Sparta.

STUDY ON II. 1.

Who compose the Spartan state? What marks a man as a Spartan? In other words, what bonds of union exist among the Spartans? Who holds the chief power in the Spartan state? What checks upon this power? What resemblances do you find between the Spartan and the Homeric constitution? What difference? What part of the state has lost power since Homeric times? Whom does the chief power in this government represent? What takes the place nowadays of the general assembly in its function of hearing news, laws, etc.? What name can you give to this sort of government, (a) considering Spartans alone? (b) considering all the inhabitants of Laconia?

What gave the institutions of Lycurgus their power over the people, and what enabled them to keep that power? What seems to have been the great aim of these institutions? How did each provision made help to attain that aim? What means had they for training the intellect? What elements of character were evidently sought for? What sentiment was cherished by the common treatment of all? What effect would such institutions have upon the family life? Upon the physique? Upon the manners? What adjectives would you apply to the Spartan life? What do you infer as to the position of women in such a state? How would labor be regarded in such a state? Why? Did the Spartan laws look to the good of the individual, the family, or the state? What does each story told of Sparta show as to the influence of her discipline? What was her position among Greek states? What was evidently her ideal?

II. 2. The Development of the Athenian Constitution.

a. Athens before Solon.

66

776-594 B.C.

In Athens, before Solon, every family had its own tomb, generally near the house; here and at the family hearth they worshipped together their common ancestor. The following is a prayer offered by a daughter at the tomb of her father: "Take pity on me and on my brother Orestes; make him return to this country; hear my prayer, O my father; grant my wishes, receiving my offerings." If sons were adopted, or daughters married into a family, this was accomplished by teaching them how to share in its worship, which thus became their own. A union of such families formed a gens or clan, whose members were recognized by the fact that they performed sacrifices in common." A union of clans formed a brotherhood, worshipping some common ancestor or hero. Of such brotherhoods were the four Ionic tribes composed; who, claiming a common descent from Ion, the son of Apollo, and worshipping in common at the shrine of Athena on the Acropolis 1 of Athens, composed the early city of Athens; only these tribesmen were her citizens. Even among the tribesmen a distinction had risen between the "well-born" or the Eupatrids, as they were called, and the "Many," the former claiming to be of purer and nobler Ionic blood than the latter.

The earliest political constitution of Athens was that of the Heroic age; just before the time of Solon, as far as known, it appears as follows:

1 The hill-fortress and shrine around which Athens was built.

may

be

Our own cities are made up of "wards" or districts, which called the units of which the city is composed; in Athens, what units do you find? What bonds of union in each of these units? Which of these bonds was fundamental and essential? Which class of people held the ruling power? Which had but little? What free men in Attica had no power? What fact determined a man's chance for power? What resemblances between the constitution of Athens and that of Homeric times? What great changes had taken place? What class had profited by this change? How had this change probably

All the archons were chosen annually from, and probably by, the Eupatrids.

2 In full, the Senate of Areopagus or of Mars' Hill.

affected the influence of the "Many"? If a man were rich but not a Eupatrid, what would be true of his political power? What name will you give to this form of the Athenian government? What view was evidently taken among the Athenians of the state of the soul after death?

b. The Legislation of Solon.1 594 B.C. (Abridged from Plutarch.)

Solon, being himself of noblest Eupatrid birth, was chosen archon for the purpose of composing the difficulties of the Athenian state. "A saying of his which he had let fall some time before, that equality causes no war,' was then much repeated, and pleased both the rich and the poor." The first of his public acts was to free all lands which had been mortgaged and all citizens who had been enslaved for debt, and to enact that in future no Athenian should pledge his own person as security for his debts, nor sell the members of his own family into slavery in order to meet his dues. In confirmation of this measure, the people offered the sacrifice called "Seisachtheia," or the thank-offering for freedom.

In the next place, Solon took an estimate of the estates of the citizens. Those whose yearly income was equal to about 700 bushels of barley he placed in the first class. The second consisted of those... whose lands produced between 420 and 700 bushels. In the third class came those who were worth from 280 to 420 bushels, and in the fourth, all those whose income fell below this: thus the Eupatrids and the "Many" often found themselves in the same class.

He next gave Athens the following political constitution:

1 This legislation affected none but the Ionian "tribesmen" of Attica.

To this constitution Solon added the following laws: that any one, without children, might will away his property as he pleased; that no one should be obliged to main-. tain his father, if the latter had not taught him a trade; that trades should be honorable, and that the Areopagus should examine into each man's way of life and should punish the idle; that the privileges of the city should be forbidden to strangers, except such as were forever exiled from their