were only 69 days in which clouds did not pass over the face of the sun. The observations at the Signal Service Office in New York city show that the heaviest rainfall took place in July, the amount for that month having been 9.63 inches. Next was September, with 7-43 inches. Some of the heaviest downpours were only local showers. Thus, while in New York city July was the wettest month of the year and 2-27 inches fell on the 27th, in the Catskills no rain fell during the latter half of the month. A great excess of rainfall over the normal was also observed at Baltimore, Washington, and Norfolk and Lynchburg, Va. To the north and east of New York, as at Block Island, Boston, Portland and Eastport, Me., the rainfall was below the normal. The year was also remarkable in New York for the mildness and equability of its temperature. The extremes of summer heat and winter cold were alike of unusually rare occurrence. The maximum temperature on the 9th of June was 91°, and the minimum, Feb. 24, was 3° below zero. The observatories of Western Europe remarked a period of less than normal mean annual temperature from 1885 to 1888 inclusive, during which thirty-one out of the forty-eight months were cooler than the normal.

Electricity. Some interesting observations on the character of lightning were made at the top of the Washington Monument, five hundred feet above the streets of the city of Washington during thunder-storms in 1886. Sparks passed almost continuously between the suspending wire and the case of the electrometer. The "sparking" between the collector and the ground having ceased, it was found that when thunderclouds are approaching the electrometer needle responds to their presence and is very active, and after considerable oscillation begins to move steadily in one direction, as if subject to a gradually increasing pull, until a sudden drop to zero occurs, and with it the flash of lightning. The steady movements of the needle are then resumed. The process is thus repeated with every flash. It is in this way possible to know just when a flash is going to occur. Peculiar sensations are sometimes undergone during thunderstorms by surveying parties, which cease whenever a flash of lightning occurs. The monument observation explains these experiences, and proves that every lightning flash relieves the electrical tension.

Some remarkable effects were observed from a flash of lightning that struck a windmill at Upminster, Essex, England, Sept. 2. The flash appeared as a network of flame that threw off thousands of sparks. The direction of the flash, as shown by its effects, was from earth to cloud. One branch of it passed through an iron chain that hung from top to bottom of the mill, fusing the links when they touched, Another branch tore up the lead lining of a gutter along which it passed, at every junction bending it in the direction of the current, while another branch perforated a board from within outward. The whole charge joined on reaching the ironwork of the sails, and, passing from this, entered the wood, when the framework was shattered, the shutters smashed and thrown about, bolts were broken, and the main shaft was splintered. Large pieces were thrown fifty yards.

Observations on the aurora borealis were made at the Swedish International Polar Station in Spitzbergen in 1882-'83 by Mr. Carlheim-Gyllenskiöld. The position of the corona was found to be nearly in the magnetic zenith, and not in the same vertical as the highest point of the arch, thus confirming the measurements made during the past century by Wilcke, Mairan, and others. The breadth of the auroral arches varies with their elevation above the horizon. The arches consist of rays running in the direction of the breadth, and converging toward the magnetic zenith. Thus they form a long fringe of rays parallel to the dipping-needle, suspended like a curtain from east to west, but with a small extent of breadth from north to south. If this curtain of rays moves from the horizon to the zenith, the breadth varies according to the laws of perspective. Besides the arches and rays, the auroral light sometimes formed a true spherical zone parallel with the earth's surface, thus floating in space as a horizontal layer of light, often crossed by several arches. These zones were apparently much broader in the zenith than at their extremities nearer to the horizon. While the movement of the arches has generally been reported as from north to south at places situated to the south of the maximum zone, and from the opposite direction at places within the maximum zone, at Cape Thorsden (the name of the station), which is north of the maximum zone, but very near it, 576 per cent. of the auroral arches moved from the north. The anomalous forms of arches were very frequent, and were made a matter of accurate investigation. In the phenomena of waves of light running along the arches-"the merry dancers"-in 103 cases the waves ran from west to east, and in 101 from east to west, at a mean angular velocity of 38.6" per second. The rays were sometimes observed to have a slow proper motion from west to east, or vice versa. The light of the aurora is described as being of two kinds-the yellow light, entirely monochromatic, and showing in the spectroscope the yellow line of Angström, and the crimson or violet light, which is resolved in the spectroscope into several rays and bands, spread over all parts of the spectrum. No sound was ever heard from the auroral light.

St. Elmo's fire has been seen and studied at various times at the Ben Nevis Observatory, where it takes the form of jets of light on the tops of all objects that stand any height above the general level of the roof of the building. The meteor is seen on an average six hours after the lowest reading of the barometer has been recorded in a depression that occurs in a general low-pressure area; it is preceded, accompanied, and followed by a falling temperature; the wind veers considerably, and goes on veering for some time after its appearance; and it is attended by heavy precipitation in the form of snow-hail.

In the observations of Prof. Assmann at the Sentis (Switzerland) on St. Elmo's fire the phenomena were acoustical rather than optical."

Winds. A comparison of average wind velocities in the United States has been made by Mr. Frank Waldo, who draws the conclusion that there are in general in the eastern part of the country a principal maximum and minimum in March and August respectively, with a seconda

ry fall maximum and winter minimum; the latter, however, is variable and does not take place for the same months in the different regions. To the westward, the spring maximum gradually changes from March to April; but the same regularity does not exist west of the Mississippi that has been observed in the Eastern States. For the stations west of the Mississippi valley and the Great Plains, the minimum occurs in August, but for those farther west and not on the coast, it has a tendency to be delayed till later in the fall.

In the relation of wind velocity to latitude, while a considerable difference was shown in the wind for two years--1881, 1882-between which comparison was made at the ocean, each year showed a maximum at about 50° latitude, which is nearly in the path of greatest frequency of "lows." For the mean of two years there was a slow increase from 22° to 32° and a rapid increase thence to about 50°, with an apparent decrease north of this line. An increase with latitude was also observed in stations of the Mississippi valley and corresponding stations north, beginning at Vicksburg. It is, however, as yet difficult to determine how much of the increase is due to latitude and how much to difference in altitude.

Experiments by W. H. Dines for determining the relation between the velocity of the wind and the pressure it exerts upon obstacles opposed to it showed that a pressure of one pound per square foot is carred by a wind of a little over seventeen miles per hour, and that the pressure upon the same area is increased by increasing the perimeter. The pressure upon any surface is but slightly altered by a cone or rim projecting from the back.

In a memoir on "General Atmospheric Movements," Von Helmholtz suggests that wind velocities, which might otherwise be much greater than they are, are limited, not so much by the friction of the surface of the earth as by the mingling and interference of different strata and currents in the atmosphere itself.

In a "Review of some Important Tornado Literature" published in the “American Meteorological Journal," Mr. Frank Waldo takes notice of the descriptions of tornadoes and the older and modern theories on the subject. For descriptions we have to look entirely to American literature, and can find little of scientific value previous to the establishment of "Silliman's Journal." The data of the phenomena, so far as they were known at the time of the organization of our Weather Bureau, are summarized in Reye's "Die Wirbelstürme," which was published in 1872. The establishment of the Signal Service Weather Bureau gave opportunity for making a systematic study of the subject, which has been improved by Finley, Ferrel, Hinrichs, and others. The beginning of what is now considered the true explanation was made in Reye's publication and Ferrel's earlier work, between which it is difficult to settle satisfactorily all the questions of priority. In a later paper ("Meteorological Researches," Part II, Washington, 1880) Ferrel published a detailed investigation of the "principles on which he regarded the theory of tornadoes to be founded. His latest and most complete paper is embodied in his "Recent Advances in Meteorology," Washington, 1885. In the former paper, con

sidering tornadoes as "simply special cases of cyclones," he modified his analysis of the latter phenomena so as to make it applicable to tornadoes. In the latter paper the application of his dynamics of cyclones to tornadoes required much modification as regards friction and the effect of the deflective force of the earth's rotation. The initial state of the tornado was found to depend simply on the condition of unstable equilibrium for saturated air at the existing temperature; and in this respect also the reasoning was different from that applied to cyclones. Almost simultaneously with Ferrel's publication appeared Guldberg and Mohn's "Études sur les Mouvements de l'Atmosphere," which are mentioned as being of the highest importance in connection with the study of the action of tornadoes. According to Prof. Mohn, tornadoes are formed by ascending air currents which are having their vapor constantly condensed above. They are violent secondary whirlwinds which are formed on the warmer southern side of the primary cyclones. Spouts, and partly at least also tornadoes, originate when the air is in a state of unstable equilibrium. Davis's "Whirlwind Cyclones and Tornadoes" and Sprung's "Lehrbuch der Meteorologie' are also recommended. The former is popular in style and historically comprehensive. The Signal Service has directed that none of its observers shall hereafter notice in his official reports any storm as a tornado unless it shall be a violent local storm in connection with which is noted (by day) a well-defined, pendent, funnel-shaped cloud, with attendant rotary winds of sufficient violence, over a well-marked path, to uproot trees, prostrate dwellings, carry heavy objects long distances, or otherwise leave plain evidence of unusually violent and rotary wind currents. The essential feature of the definition is the characteristic cloud funnel.

It is said in the "Pilot Chart" of the United States Hydrographic Bureau that whenever whirlwinds, water-spouts, or tornadoes occur, it is in connection with a general cyclonic storm of large area. The principles involved in their formation are almost identical with those that determine the formation of a tropical cyclonethat is, great contrasts of temperature and moisture between adjacent layers of air. In the United States and off our coasts they may therefore naturally be expected to occur to the southward of a storm center, where cold, dry, northerly winds blow over and mingle with warm, moist air from the southward. But local conditions of pressure, temperature, and moisture may cause exceptions to the general rule.

Prof. W. M. Davis has described the observations of the sea breeze made by him in 1887 at coast and inland stations in Massachusetts and southeastern New Hampshire. He found that about 10 A. M. the sea breeze began to blow normally to the coast. Later in the day it penetrated farther inland on the north shore (north of Boston) than on the south shore. It appeared that the diurnal range of temperature, which is diminished on the coast by the action of the sea breeze, is not lessened at the inland stations. This seems remarkable, since the motion of the sea breeze inland is thought to be due to the difference of temperature between land and sea. But, although the sea breeze is apparently heated

ers.

up to the temperature of the land breeze at inland stations, this may be only in its lower layThe general theory that the sea breeze is caused by the difference of temperature between the land and water requires the breeze to begin at the shore and extend its area seaward, while observation shows that the breeze begins out at sea and works its way in shore. This may be explained by supposing that the circulation of the air is not established, but is in process of establishment, and that the quick, morning expansion of the land air causes a reverse gradient at the shore line, turning the surface winds toward the sea. This gradient disappears as the expansion of the air causes an upper outflow, and then the inland progress of the sea breeze is effected. There should in this case be a difference of barometric pressure at land and sea stations, and such observations of pressure and temperature have been made by Blanford in India. The depth of the sea breeze was determined by balloon observations at Coney Island to be between 300 and 400 feet. On mountainous islands the diurnal valley breeze is confirmed by the sea breeze. The diurnal change in the wind's direction at coast stations is explained by the combination of the land and sea breezes deflected by the earth's rotation.

Mr. W. Flinders Petrie, in a paper on wind action in Egypt, based on his own recent observations in the Nile delta, says the underlying motions of the delta are depression on the coast and upheaval at Ismailiyeh. Above these movements great changes have been made by wind action; in some sites at least eight feet of ground have been removed and deposited in the water. This has partly caused the great retreat of the Red Sea head, and tends to form the characteristic swamps of this district.

Another example of erosion by wind action has been described in the French Academy of Sciences, by M. Coutejean, as to be seen at Corinth in a cavern through which an old amphitheatre communicates with the beach. The walls of this cavern, which is formed in the sandstone stratum at the foot of the cliff, are extremely rugged and irregularly corroded, and nowhere show traces of human workmanship. The tunnel could not have been excavated either by the rains or the running waters, and its existence can be explained only by the action of the sands playing on a point of least resistance under the influence of the fierce northern gales prevalent in this region.

Bibliography.-Besides official reports, the bulletins and special papers of meteorological stations, and periodicals, the more important American meteorological publications of recent date include Prof. William Ferre's " Popular Treatise on the Winds," Cleveland Abbe's "Treatise on Meteorological Apparatus and Methods," and a study by Prof. Gustavus Hinrich of "Tornadoes and Derechos." The reports of the Signal Office contain the details of weather phenomena for every day in the year. The publications of the Hydrographic Bureau of the Navy Department are sources of information concerning ocean weather. The New England Meteorological Society publishes regular bulletins of observations recorded at the stations with which it is in close correspondence. The

records of observations at the Blue Hill Observatory, Mass., are published under the direction of A. Lawrence Rotch. The Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College has published a summary of meteorological observations made during the years 1840 to 1888 inclusive. The "American Meteorological Journal," Ann Arbor, Mich., gives discussions of living meteorological questions by students and observers. The Argentine Meteorological Office, under the direction of Walter G. Davis, has published a volume embodying the results of climatological observations made at selected stations in different parts of the republic since 1872. Many papers of practical or theoretical value have appeared in the "Transactions of the English Meteorological Society." Mr. H. F. Blanford's "Guide to the Climates and Weather of India, Ceylon, and Burmah, and the Storms of the Indian Seas" is an important contribution to general climatology. Of similar character is the Russian A. Woeikoff's study of the "Influence of Snow Covering on Soil, Climate, and Weather," which is published in German at Vienna. Prof. A. Blytt's "Variation of Climate in Course of Time" is of great value in this study. Herr H. Fritz has published at Leipsic a treatise on the most important periodical phenomena of meteorology and cosmology. To general climatology belongs also H. Zenke's "Distribution of Heat over the Earth's Surface" (Berlin). J. Kiessling's "Investigations of Atmospheric Disturbances and Twilight Phenomena that followed the Krakatoa Eruption," with the Report of the British Krakatoa Commission, comprehend what has been ascertained on that subject. The "Equatorial Limits of Snow-fall" has been discussed by H. Fischer (Leipsic). The latest attitude of meteorology, especially with relation to geographical questions, has been reviewed by S. Günther (Munich). In a similar line is R. Dove's "Climate of Extra-Tropical South Africa, as bearing on Geographical and Economical Considerations" (German). Weather-forecasting has been discussed in our own signal-service reports, by Th. Kirsch (Breslau), and by H. Treisbann (Paderborn), and in the papers of the meteorological societies. The New England Meteorological Society has instituted a special study of thunderstorms, and numerous papers and reports on the subject have appeared in the United States and Great Britain. Besides these, G. Planté's "Electrical Phenomena of the Atmosphere," Krebe's studies at Hamburg from 1878 to 1887, Boehmer's studies of electrical phenomena in the Rocky Mountains, Riggenbach's review of the storms of one hundred and twelve years at Basle, and the instructions published by the Prussian Meteorological Office, contribute to our knowledge of these phenomena. J. Hann (Leipsic) has published "Investigations of the Daily Oscillations of the Barometer"; W. J. Van Bebber (Leipsic), contributions to knowledge of daily periods of wind velocity on the German coasts; A. Ledendorf (Berlin), a treatise on the meteorological, physiological, and therapeutic relations of

High-Altitude Climates"; J. M. Pernter (Leipsic), "Measurements of Radiation at the Sonnblick Observatory for February, 1888"; E. Von Frey (Dorpat), estimates of the carbonicacid content of the atmosphere at Dorpat from

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September, 1888, to July, 1889; and W. J. Van Bebber, at Stuttgart, a Text-Book of Meteorology for Students and for Practical Use."

The first part of the " Bibliography of Meteorology," by the Signal Service Office at Washington, includes all the titles of books and articles bearing on the subject of temperature to the close of 1881. Similar titles, covering the period from 1882 to 1877, have been prepared, to be given hereafter.

METHODISTS. I. Methodist Episcopal Church. The following is a summary of the statistics of the Methodist Episcopal Church for 1889, as they are given in the "Minutes of the Annual Conferences" for 1889: Number of annual conferences and missions, 129; of traveling preachers, 13,279, with 1,779 on trial; of local preachers, 13,455; of members, 1,998,293; of probationers, 238,170; total of members and probationers, 2,236,463; of baptisms, 74,015 of children and 101,062 of adults; of Sundayschools, 25,590, with 287,192 officers and teachers, and 2,222,728 pupils; of churches, 22,103; probable value of the same, $99,544,593; number of parsonages, 8,082, having a probable value of $13,386,193. Conference contributions for benevolent causes: For the Board of Church Extension, $151,229; for the Sunday-School Union, $22,370; for the Tract Society, $21,085; for the Board of Education, $103,991; for the Freedmen's Aid and Southern Education Society, $97,256; for the American Bible Society, $34,369; for the Missionary Society, $1,011,311; for conference claimants, $217,490. There were also recorded contributions of $206,680 for the Woman's Foreign Missionary Society, and $99,654 for the Woman's Home Missionary Society.

The General Committee of Church Extension met at St. Louis, Mo., Nov. 21. The treasurer reported that the receipts of the board for the year had been: On the General fund, available for general work, donations, etc., $183,193; on the Loan fund, $94,586; total, $277,779. The entire receipts since the organization of the board had been $3,725,899, and the whole number of grants made had been 7,066. The Loan fund had grown steadily, and now returned a total capital, in cash and productive property, of $648,822; of which amount $367,192 remained subject to annuity. Grants were out to 288 churches, in donations and loans, to the amount of $103,140, while applications were on file from 29 churches, asking for $16,550, making the amount required for work already in hand $119,690. The society owns a building valued at $31,164, on which it is indebted $19,657. Ap

propriations were made for the ensuing year, and contributions asked for, to the amount of $253,350.

The annual meeting of the Board of Education was held in New York, Dec. 4. The treasurer's report showed that the collections had increased during the year from $31,027 to $43,376, or 36 per cent., and the return loans from $2.275 to $2,807, or 24 per cent. The total income from all sources had been about $57,000, and the amount of invested funds was about $212,000. The sum of $42,500 was appropriated for students during the current school year. Eight hundred students in one hundred schools had been aided, and the whole number of beneficiaries to date was 2,837. Measures were discussed concerning the adoption of an annuity plan for receiving funds and for securing a better form for educational statistics.

The receipts from the Church in behalf of the Sunday-School Union during the four years ending in 1888 were $73,714. Grants of money had been made to 3,500 schools, while the grants to Sunday - school work in foreign lands had amounted to $10,000. The aggregate circulation of English Sunday-school periodicals for the year had been 27,212,700 copies, and of German periodicals, 1,689,600 copies; in addition to these publications 1,109,363 volumes had been published in Sweden, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, India, Japan, and Mexico.

The receipts of the Tract Society for four years had been $67,164. Grants of money had been made to Sweeden, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Switzerland, France, Italy, Belgium, India, China, Corea, and Mexico amounting to $21,000. Four hundred and seventy new tracts had been added to the list, besides 134 new tracts in German, and tracts in French, Spanish, Italian, Swedish, and Bohemian.

The Epworth League, which was organized in May, 1889, by the union of several young people's societies, for the purpose of enlisting the youth of the Church in active Christian work, and of enlarging their religious experience, had, on the 1st day of November, 1889, 1,500 enrolled chapters or local leagues, and more than 60,000 members.

The annual meetings of the Freedmen's Aid and Southern Education Society were held in Cincinnati, beginning Dec. 14. The total receipts for the year had been $221,843, and the expenditures $218,258. The indebtedness of the society was $132,698. The institutions supported by the society are represented in the following table: