journeys, a little bag in which to carry their money and the weights needed to determine its value.1

26. THE HAIR.-The hair was always highly esteemed by the Hebrews as an ornament of the person, whether in youth or in old age." It is a singular fact that while it was customary in Egypt for males to shave the head and to wear wigs, and for the Assyrians to let the hair grow long, the Hebrews adopted neither of these methods, but regularly trimmed the hair both of the head and beard to prevent too great luxuriance. This custom may have been brought about, in the first instance, by the very common practice among heathen nations of offering locks of hair in sacrifice to their gods. The Mosaic laws, it is true, prescribe no one way of wearing the hair, except that both priests and people are prohibited from interfering with its orderly growth, whether on the head or the face. They might not cut it off in certain spots only, as a sign of mourning, and in imitation of the heathen nations about them.3

But in the book of Ezekiel the priests are bidden to "poll," that is, trim, their hair, in distinction from shaving it off or letting it

grow long in the form of locks; and there

is every reason to suppose that the laity followed the same practice without being specially enjoined to do so. Extremely long hair was the acknowledged badge of the Nazarite. The case of Absalom was clearly an exception to ordinary rules for adults; and Josephus mentions it as a singular habit of the body-guard of Solomon that they wore long hair. The same conclusion is reached when we consider that to let the hair grow and remain uncared for was regarded as a symbol of distress and sorrow, and was also particularly enjoined on the leper. Still, it is probable that the Hebrews wore their hair somewhat longer than is common with us, and may have taken some means of confining it close to the head. This would seem to follow from some incidental expressions of the Bible, such as letting the 66 hair go loose" and "uncovering the ear," that is, to hear.9 Luxuriant black hair was specially prized, and none the less if it was curly.

1 Gen. 42:35; Deut. 25: 13; Micah 6:11; Luke 10:4; 12:33. 2 2 Sam. 14:26; 2 Kings 2: 23; Prov. 16:31. 3 Lev. 19:27; 21:5; Deut. 14:1; but cf. Job 1: 20; Jer. 7: 29; 16:6; 41: 5. 4 Ezek. 44: 20. 5 Num. 6:5; 1 Sam. 1: 11. 62 Sam. 14: 25. 7 Josephus, Antiq. 8, 7:3. 8 Lev. 13: 45; 21: 10. 9 Lev. 10:6; 1 Sam. 20: 2 (margin), 12; cf. Ezek. 24: 17.

There is no evidence that the Israelites ever sought to disguise the signs of age appearing in gray hair. Josephus, however, alleges that Herod did this, and we know that it was common with the Greeks and Romans. With the Hebrews, on the contrary, the hoary head was looked upon as a mark of dignity and honor. This is not only directly stated, but is incidentally confirmed by the fact that God himself is represented in vision with snowy-white hair.2 The occupation of the barber was well known at all periods. A woman named Mariam, acting in this capacity, is mentioned in the Talmud. The Bible gives us little information concerning modes of dressing the hair. That of women, which was worn long, seems often to have been braided. New Testament writers, in making reference to this fact, did so, it is likely, less with the view of censuring the practice than of cautioning Christian women against giving too much attention to the "outward adorning of plaiting the hair, and of wearing jewels of gold, or of putting on apparel.' Egyptian women used combs and other similar devices for keeping the hair in place. It is most probable that the same appliances were early adopted in Palestine. According to Josephus, in Solomon's time gold-dust was sometimes sprinkled on the hair in order to increase the brilliancy of its effects. The custom of anointing it, especially on festival occasions, dates back to the earliest periods. Head-tires, too, are several times spoken of in the Scriptures, but without any definite description of them."

994

27. PIGMENTS. The practice of applying pigments to the eyelids and eyebrows in order to enhance the apparent brilliancy of the eyes was common throughout the East in Bible times. The prophet Jeremiah, addressing Israel, says, "Though thou clothest thyself with scarlet, though thou deckest thee with ornaments of gold, though thou enlargest (roundest) thine eyes with paint, in vain dost thou make thyself fair; thy lovers despise thee, they seek thy life." The material used for this purpose was often kept in a horn, a fact which seems to have given rise to the name of Job's third daughter, Keren-happuch, which means, literally, "the pigment-horn.' Besides puch, the paint was also called kachal, and is so named to this day among the Arabs. It is a preparation of antimony, and, singularly enough, it is from this word that the term "alcohol" comes; the fineness of the powder suggesting the idea of highly-rectified 1 Josephus, Antiq. 16, 8:1; cf. Matt. 5:36. 2 Lev. 19:32; Prov. 16: 31; Dan. 7:9; Rev. 1: 14. 3 Num. 6:5; Ps. 52: 2; Isa. 7:20; Ezek. 5:1. 41 Tim. 2:9; 1 Pet. 3:2. 5 Jose phus, Antiq. 8, 7:3. 6 Ruth 3:3; 2 Sam. 14:2; Ps. 23:5; Matt. 6:17; Luke 7:46. 7 2 Kings 9:30; Isa. 3:20; 61: 3, 10. 8 Jer. 4:30; cf. Prov. 6:25; Isa. 3:24. 9 Job 42: 14.

spirits. This pigment is applied to the eyelids by modern Egyptian women by means of a small, blunt piece of wood or ivory, which is moistened, dipped in the mixture and then drawn carefully along the edges of the eye. Boxes containing the substance have been brought to light in considerable numbers from Egyptian tombs.

000

Egyptian Woman, with Eyes and Skin Tattooed.

28. That Hebrew women tattooed their skin or painted the soles of their feet, the palms of their hands, or their nails, as is now customary with the women of western Asia, does not appear to be supported by valid evidence from the Scriptures.1 That all classes made great use of the bath is clear from the Mosaic laws of purificationwhich are based on this custom-as well as from certain uniform rites of hospitality."

The practice of anointing the skin was also widespread in the East at all times. That the Hebrews highly regarded it might be inferred from the fact that the holy anointing oil used in consecrating the priests was prohibited to the laity for ordinary purposes. We read in the poetic language of Canticles of one whose "hands dropped with myrrh" and her "fingers with liquid myrrh ;" and it is said in the Psalms, of the royal bride, "All thy garments smell of myrrh, and aloes, and cassia."5

1 See Lev. 19:28; 21:5; Deut. 14: 1. 2-Gen. 18:4; 24: 32; Ruth 3:3. 3 Ex. 30: 22-33. 4 Cant. 5:5. 5 Ps. 45: 8.

CHAPTER V.

PASTORAL LIFE AND AGRICULTURE.

1. THE earliest occupations of men, according to the Scriptures, were tilling the ground and rearing cattle and sheep. Down to the present day forms of labor directly connected with these two have always engaged the attention of large portions of our race. Pastoral life in the East, in which the calling of the herdsman as well as that of the shepherd is here included, is doubtless at the present time very much what it was in the times of Abraham and David. We read of the former that the Lord gave him "flocks and herds, silver and gold, and menservants and maidservants, and camels and asses. When the family of Jacob went down into Egypt they asked permission of Pharaoh to settle in the rich pasture-lands of Goshen. "Thy servants," they said to him, "have been keepers of cattle from our youth even until now, both we, and our fathers."" It was with their herds that they made their exodus from Egypt.3 Two and a half tribes finally settled east of the Jordan, for the reason that this region was especially suited to grazing.*

Some conception of the extent to which this business was carried on may be gained from the ever-recurring metaphors of the Old and New Testaments based upon it, from the immense number of cattle that were yearly required for sacrifice, and from the fact that sheep and cattle are so often mentioned among the blessings of a prosperous people. Numerous laws of the Pentateuch were shaped with express reference to the fact that property consisted largely in cattle. In fact, the same Hebrew word signified property in general and property in flocks and herds.

2. REARING OF SHEEP.-Formerly, as now, sheep were the most numerous and important of domestic animals in the East. Just previous to their crossing the Jordan the Hebrews took away from the Midianites, along with other booty, not less than six hundred and seventy-five thousand head. Nabal, the rich Carmelite, had a flock of three thousand sheep and one thousand goats." At the dedication of the temple Solomon is said to have offered in sacrifice

1 Gen. 24:35. 2 Gen. 46:34; 47: 3. 3 Ex. 12:32. 4 Num. 32: 1. 28:4; Jer. 31:27; Zech. 2:4. 6 Num. 31:32. 71 Sam. 25: 2.

5 Deut. 8:13;

twenty-two thousand oxen and a hundred and twenty thousand sheep.1 In later times the king of Moab paid to King Ahab an annual tribute of a hundred thousand rams with their wool, and as many more lambs; and on the monuments of Assyria it is recorded that Sennacherib in a war with Merodach-Baladan captured on one occasion eight hundred thousand sheep and goats.

The sheep most common in Syria and Palestine is what is known as the broad-tailed species. A variety of the sort generally found among western peoples is also seen, but far less frequently. The former have been reared in the East from time immemorial. They are mentioned by classical writers, and are doubtless referred to in several passages of the Pentateuch in connection with sacrifices.3 The tail of this sheep is little else than a mass of fat, which is described as of delicate quality, being superior to tallow, though not equal to butter. It is made great use of in the preparation of a large number of Oriental dishes. Ordinarily the entire tail weighs about twenty pounds, though sometimes considerably more.

The color of sheep was usually white, and only exceptionally black or speckled. They bear in the East twice yearly, the later lambs being regarded as the stronger. We find many illustrations in the Scriptures based on the natural qualities or habits of this animal. Its uncomplaining patience, for example, is noticed; its tractability; its strong attachment to the shepherd, especially that of a pet lamb; its innocence; the peculiarity that leads the whole flock to follow the leader; its helplessness when left without a shepherd; and the miserable plight of a wandering and lost sheep.

It is customary now in the East, as it was in Bible times, to give names to individual sheep, to which they respond. Our Lord, speaking of himself as the true shepherd, declares, "the sheep hear his voice: and he calleth his own sheep by name, and leadeth them out." And it is said of him in prophecy that "he shall feed his flock like a shepherd, he shall gather the lambs in his arms, and carry them in his bosom, and shall gently lead those that give suck."

Of the various uses to which sheep were put, emphasis is laid in the Bible chiefly 'on their employment as offerings and for food and clothing. For the first object lambs of the first year were the most common; although sheep under three years old, and especially rams,

11 Kings 8: 63. 22 Kings 3:4 (margin). 3 Ex. 29: 22; Lev. 7:3; 8:25; 9: 19. 4 Gen. 30:32; Cant. 4:2; Dan. 7:9. 5 Num. 27: 17; 2 Sam. 12:3; 24: 17; 1 Kings 22:17; Isa. 53:7; Ezek. 34:5; Dan. 8:3; Matt. 9:36; Luke 15:4; 1 Pet. 2: 25. 6 John 10:3. 7 Isa. 40:11.