fighting.

along in files, he that closes the rear, diligently covers with leaves the tracks of his own feet, and of theirs who preceded him. When they halt to refresh themselves, scouts are sent out to reconnoitre the country, and beat up every place where they suspect an enemy to lie concealed. In this manner they enter, unawares, the villages of their foes; and while the flower of the nation are engaged in hunting, massacre all the children, women, and helpless old men; or make prisoners of as many as they can manage, or have strength enough to be useful to their nation. But when the enemy is apprized of their design, and comes on in arms against them, they throw themselves flat on the ground among the withered herbs and leaves, which their faces are painted to resemble. They then allow a part to pass unmolested, when, all at once, with a tremendous shout, rising up from their ambush, they pour a storm of musket-balls, or arrows, on their foes. The party attacked returns the same cry. Manner of Every one shelters himself with a tree, and returns the fire of the adverse party, as soon as they raise themselves from the ground to give a second fire. Thus does the battle continue until one party is so much weakened as to be incapable of farther resistance. In their battles death appears in a thousand hideous forms, which would congeal the blood of civilized nations to behold, but which rouses the fury of savages. They trample, they insult, over the dead bodies, and tear the scalp from the head. The flame rages on till it meets with no resistance; then the prisoners are secured, those unhappy men whose fate is a thousand times more dreadful than theirs who have died in the field. The conquerors set up a hideous howling, to lament the friends they have lost. They approach, in a melancholy and severe gloom, to their own village; a messenger is sent to announce their arrival, and the women, with frightful shrieks, come out to mourn their dead brothers, or their husbands. When they are arrived, the chief relates in a low voice, to the elders, a circumstantial account of every particular of the expedition. The orator proclaims aloud this account to the people; and as he mentions the names of those who have fallen, the shrieks of the women are redoubled. The men, too, join in these cries, according as each is most connected with the deceased by blood or friendship. The last ceremony is the proclamation of the victory; each individual then forgets his private misfortunes, and joins in the triumphs of his nation; all tears are wiped from their eyes, and by an unaccountable transition, they pass, in a moment, from the bitterness of sorrow, to an extravagance of joy. But the treatment of their prisoners, whose fate all this time remains undecided, is what chiefly characterizes the savages.

Treatment

oners.

The person who has taken the captive attends him to the cottage, where, according to the distribution made by the elders, he is to be of their prisdelivered to supply the loss of a citizen. If those who receive him have their family weakened by war or other accidents, they adopt the captive into the family, of which he becomes a member. But if they have no occasion for him, or their resentment for the loss of their friends be too high to endure the sight of one connected with those who were concerned in it, they sentence him to death. All those who have met with the same severe sentence being collected, the whole nation is assembled at the execution, as for some great solemnity. A scaffold is erected, and the prisoners are tied to the stake, where they commence their death-song, and prepare for the ensuing scene of cruelty with the most undaunted courage. Their enemies, on the other side, are determined to put it to the proof, by the most refined and exquisite tortures. They begin at the extremity of his body, and gradually approach the more Shocking vital parts. One plucks out his nails by the roots, one by one; another takes a finger into his mouth, and tears off the flesh with his teeth; a third thrusts the finger, mangled as it is, into the bowl of his pipe made red-hot, which he smokes like tobacco; then they pound his toes and fingers to pieces between two stones; they cut circles about his, joints, and gashes in the fleshy

B

tortures.

parts of his limbs, which they sear immediately with red-hot irons, cutting, burning, and pinching them, alternately; they will pull off his flesh thus mangled and roasted, bit by bit, devouring it with greediness, and smearing their faces with the blood, in an enthusiasm of horror and fury. When they have thus torn off the flesh, they twist the bare nerves and tendons about an iron, tearing and snapping them, whilst others are employed in pulling and extending his limbs in every way that can increase the torment. This continues often five or six hours; and sometimes, such is the strength of the savages, days together. Then they frequently unbind him, to give a breathing to their fury, to think what new torments they shall inflict, and to refresh the strength of the sufferer, who, wearied out with such a variety of unheard-of cruelties, often falls into such a profound sleep, that they are obliged to apply the fire to awake him, and renew his sufferings. He is again fastened to the stake, and again they renew their cruelty; they stick him all over with small matches of wood that easily take fire, but burn slowly; they continually run sharp reeds into all parts of his body; they drag out his teeth with pincers, and thrust out his eyes; and lastly, after having burned his flesh from the bones with slow fires; after having so mangled the body that it is all but one wound; after having mutilated his face in such a manner as to carry nothing human in it; after having peeled the skin from the head, and poured a heap of red-hot coals or boiling water upon the naked skull, they once more unbind the wretch; who, blind, and staggering with pain and weakness, assaulted and pelted on every side with clubs and stones, now up, now down, falling into their fires at every step, runs hither and thither, until one of the chiefs, whether out of compassion, or weary of cruelty, puts an end to his life with a club or dagger. The body is then put into a kettle, and this barbarous custom is succeeded by a feast as barbarous. The women are said to surpass even the men in this scene of horror: while the principal persons of the country sit round the stake, smoking and looking on, without the least emotion.

Constancy of What is the most extraordinary, the sufferer himself, in the little the sufferers. intervals of his torments, smokes too, appears unconcerned, and converses with his torturers about indifferent matters. Indeed, during the whole time of his execution, there seems a contest which shall exceed, they in inflicting the most horrid pains, or he in enduring them with a firmness and constancy almost above human: not a groan, not a sigh, not a distortion of countenance escapes him: he possesses his mind entirely in the midst of his torments: he recounts his own exploits: he informs them what cruelties he has inflicted on their countrymen; and threatens them with the revenge that will attend his death; and, though his reproaches exasperate them to a perfect madness of rage and fury, he continues his insults even of their ignorance of the art of tormenting, pointing out himself more exquisite methods, and more sensible parts of the body to be afflicted.

Treatment

Nothing can exceed the warmth of their affection towards their Friendship. friends, who consist of all those who live in the same village, or are in alliance with it. Their friendship principally appears by the treatment of their dead. Where any one of the society is cut off, he is lamented by the whole on this occasion a variety of ceremonies is practised, denoting the most lively sorrow. No business is transacted, however pressing, till all the pious ceremonies due to the dead are performed. The body is washed, of their dead anointed, and painted. Then the women lament the loss with friends. hideous howlings, intermixed with songs which celebrate the great actions of the deceased and his ancestors. The men mourn also, though in a less extravagant manner. The whole village is present at the interment, and the corpse is habited in their most sumptuous ornaments. Close to the body of the deceased are placed his bows and arrows, with whatever he valued most in his life, and a quantity of provision for his subsistence on the journey which he is

supposed to take. This solemnity, like every other, is attended with feasting. The funeral being ended, the relations of the deceased confine themselves to their huts, for a considerable time, to indulge their grief. After an interval of some weeks, they visit the grave, repeat their sorrow, new-clothe the remains of the body, and act over again all the solemnities of the funeral.

To such extremes do the Indians push their friendship or their enmity; and such indeed, in general, is the character of all strong and uncultivated minds. Religion is not the prevailing character of Indians; and except Their reliwhen they have some immediate occasion for the assistance of their gion. gods, they pay them no sort of worship. Like all other rude nations, however they are strongly addicted to superstition. They believe in the existence of a aumber of good and bad spirits, who interfere in the concerns of mortals, and produce all our happiness or misery. It is from the evil spirits, in particularthat our diseases, they imagine, proceed; and it is to the good spirits we are indebted for a cure.

Such, in general, are the customs and manners of the Indian nation; but almost every tribe has something peculiar to itself.

A Condensed Statement of the Expenditure of the Florida War and Indian Department, showing how much each has cost yearly for the last Five Years; taken from the Reports of the Secretary of the Treasury.

Climate.

The climate of North America is various; that part lying north of latitude 50°, is a cold, barren, and desolate region. The part between 30° and 50° is subject to extremes of heat and cold. South of latitude 30° the climate is warm, producing the principal tropical fruits in abundance.

UNITED STATES

GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

Extent and

&c.

THE territory of the United States embraces the middle division of North America, extending from the Atlantic ocean on the east to the Pacific on the west. Its extreme length from the Pacific ocean to Passamaquoddy Bay, is 3,000 miles; its greatest breadth, from the southern point boundaries, of Florida, to the Lake of the Woods, is estimated to be 1,700 miles. On the north-east, a conventional line divides it from New Brunswick, extending from Passamaquoddy Bay northward to the 48th parallel, embracing the head waters of the river St. John. From this extreme northern point, the boundary line passes along the ridge of mountains south-westward to the 45th parallel, and then along this parallel till it strikes the St. Lawrence, 120 miles

below Lake Ontario. It then follows the river and chain of lakes, Ontario, Erie, St. Clair, Huron, and Superior, proceeding from the last by the course of the river La Pluie, or Rainy River, to the Lake of the Woods, from which it passes along the 49th parallel to the Rocky Mountains.

On the west of the mountains, the Americans have an unquestioned claim to the country from the 42d to the 54th parallel. On the south, the United States are bounded by the Gulf of Mexico; and on the south-west, the boundary extends from the mouth of the river Sabine, in a north-west direction, to a point in the Rocky Mountains, in north latitude 42°, and west longitude 108°, from which it passes along the 42d parallel to the Pacific ocean.

Mountains.

Two great chains of mountains traverse the territory of the United States, in a direction approaching to south and north the Allegha ny on the east, and the Rocky Mountains on the west. They divide the country into an eastern, a western, and a middle division, the latter comprising the great basin or valley of the Mississippi. For a particular description of the mountains, see the article Alleghany, &c.

Lakes and The two largest lakes wholly within the United States are Michigan rivers. and Champlain. Lakes Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, lie one half in this country, and one half in Upper Canada.

The United States contain many large and navigable rivers; some of the principal of which are the Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, Potomac, James, Savannah, Ohio, Tennessce, Mississippi, Arkansas, Red River, and the Oregon or Columbia.

A particular description of the lakes and rivers will be found under their respective heads.

The climate of the United States is remarkably inconstant and Climate. variable. It passes rapidly from the frosts of Norway to the scorching heats of Africa, and from the humidity of Holland to the drought of Castile. A change of 20 or 25 degrees of Fahrenheit, in one day, is not considered extraordinary. Even the Indians complain of the sudden variations of temperature. In sweeping over a vast frozen surface, the north-west wind acquires an extreme degree of cold and dryness, and operates very injuriously on the human frame. The south-east, on the other hand, produces on the Atlantic coast effects similar to those of the sirocco. The south-west has the same influence in the plains to the east of the Alleghanies: when it blows, the heat frequently becomes painful and suffocating. In the mountains, however, where the summer heat is moderate, even in the southern states, the fresh and blooming complexion of young persons, is a proof of the purity and salubrity of the atmosphere. The same ruddy complexion prevails in New England and in the interior of Pennsylvania; but the pale countenances of the inhabitants of all the low country, from New York to Florida, reminds a stranger of the Creoles in the West India Islands. In this region malignant fevers are prevalent in September and October. The countries situated to the west of the Alleghanies are in general more temperate and healthful. The south-west wind there brings rain, while the same effect is produced on the other side of the moun-. tains by the north-east wind. But the north-east wind, which covers the Atlantic coast with thick fogs, is dry and elastic on the banks of the Ohio. When we compare the climate on the opposite sides of the Atlantic, we find that the extremes of temperature are greater, and that the winter's cold is more severe on the west side than on the east. The mean temperature of the year, according to Humboldt, is 9 degrees (Fahr.) lower at Philadelphia than in the corre sponding latitudes on the coast of Europe. The mouth of the Delaware is generally shut by ice for six or eight weeks, and that of the St. Lawrence for five months in the year. Throughout the United States, the rains are sudden and heavy, and the dews extremely copious. Storms of thunder and lightning are also much more common and formidable than in Europe.

A general Land Office exists at Washington, which is vested Public Lands, exclusively with the power of contracting with the Indians for the sale of. sale of their lands. The business of the Land Office is the survey and sale of the public lands. These lands are purchased of the Indians by treaty with the government of the United States. Private individuals are not allowed to have any transactions of this description with the natives; and the law has been rigorously observed. Sub Land Offices are established at the following places: Ohio, Stubenville, Marietta, Cincinnati, Chillicothe, Zanesville, Wooster, Piqua, Tiffin. Indiana, Jeffersonville, Vincennes, Indianapolis, Crawfordsville, Fort Wayne. Illinois, Kaskaskia, Shawneetown, Edwardsville, Vandalia, Palestine, Springfield. Michigan Territory, Detroit, Monroe. Missouri, St. Louis, Franklin, Cape Girardeau, Lexington, Palmyra. Arkansas Territory, Batesville, Little Rock. Louisiana, Ouachita, Opelousas, New Orleans, St. Helena C. H. Mississippi, Washington, Augusta, Mount Salus. Alabama, St. Stephens, Huntsville, Tuscaloosa, Cahawba, Sparta. Florida Territory, Tallahasse, St. Augustine.

The aggregate of all the unsold and unappropriated public lands of the United States, surveyed and unsurveyed, on which the Indian title remains or has been extinguished, lying within, and without the boundaries of the new states and territories, according to a report made to congress is estimated at 1,000,000,000 acres. The lands are surveyed and set off into townships of six miles square, each of which is divided into thirty-six sections, of one mile square, or 640 acres. The dividing lines run in the direction of the cardinal points, crossing one another at right angles. One section, or one thirty-sixth part of every township, is allotted for the support of schools, and in the country west of the Alleghanies, seven entire townships have been given, in perpetuity, for the endowment of superior seminaries of learning. The lands are offered to public sale, in quarter sections, of 160 acres, at the minimum price of one and one fourth dollar per acre, and whatever remains unsold, may be purchased privately at this price. Formerly, the minimum price was two dollars per acre, payable in four years, by four instalments; but by act of congress, in 1821, it was fixed at one and one fourth dollar ready money. This new regulation was adopted to discourage the practice of speculating in land, and to lessen the litigation arising out of protracted payments.

The title deed is printed on a small sheet of parchment, with the date; the purchaser's name, and the topographical situation of the ground, are inserted in writing. It is subscribed by the president of the United States and the agent of the Land Office, and delivered without charge to the purchaser, who may transfer the property to another person by a process equally cheap and simple.

In a country having so many varieties of soil and climate as the Agricultural United States, there is necessarily a considerable diversity in the Productions. agricultural productions. Maize, or Indian corn, is cultivated in all parts of the country, but succeeds best in the middle states. Wheat is also raised in all parts of the country, but thrives best in the middle and western states. The cultivation of tobacco begins in Maryland and Virginia. Cotton grows as far north as 39°, but its cultivation is not profitable beyond the latitude of 37°. This useful plant was first raised for exportation only in 1791. It is now produced in immense quantities from the river Roanoke to the Mississippi, and forms the leading export of the United States. The best grows upon dry situ ations in Carolina and Georgia, on the sea-coast. The rice crops, which require great heat, and a soil susceptible of irrigation, commence about the same parallel, and have nearly the same geographical range. The sugar cane grows in low and warm situations, as high as latitude 33°; but the climate favorable to its cultivation does not extend beyond 314°. Oats, rye, and barley, are raised in all the northern and middle states: in the western states wheat, hemp,