caused by breathing an atmosphere of quadruple strength. Professor Woodward does not contradict this theory, but suggests in addition that the vital energies of the men taken sick were to a great extent paralyzed by loss of heat, which was due-1. To the expansion of the air in the air-lock while coming out; 2. To the expansion of the free gases and vapors within the body when relieved of the normal pressure; 3. To the liberation of the gases held in solution by the liquids of the body; 4. To the severe physical effort of climbing the stairs. The loss of heat taking place under diminution of pressure from four atmospheres to one would, if no heat were received from surrounding objects, be enough to reduce the temperature from 70° above to 106° below zero. Dr. Jaminet gives an implied confirmation of these views by the remark that "the paresis is but the result of reflex action caused by the spontaneous refrigeration of the whole system, but principally of the abdominal organs. It is also worthy of remark that none of the men were ever attacked on entering the caisson, and none were ever sick while in the air-chamber, but that the attack always came on within half an hour after leaving the air-lock, or at the time. In view of these experiences, Professor Woodward suggests, in regard to the management of men at work in compressed air, that only sound men should be employed, that they should be guarded against exhaustion, that they should not be exposed with unnecessary suddenness to the change from a compressed to a normal atmosphere, and that such a supply of heat should be given every man that he could lose a large amount and still have plenty left. The literature of physiology has been marked by the appearance of numerous works, monographs, and papers on the general subject and its several departments. Among the more important of the works published during 1881 are W. Krause's supplement to his "Handbuch der Menschlichen Anatomie," containing all recent additions to human anatomy, especially in regard to weights and measures, stated in a very concise manner; Robert Hartmann's (Berlin) "Human Anatomy"; Schwalbe's "Lehrbuch der Neurologie"; additional parts of Hermann's "Handbuch der Physiologie," which it is predicted will constitute the fullest and in some respects the best work on physiology extant; a "Text-Book of Physiology by Immanuel Munk, of the Veterinary School of Berlin, in which the physiological relations of the domestic animals are specially dwelt upon; new editions of Carpenter's "Physiology," by Power, of Foster's "Physiology," and of Beaunis's "Elements of Physiology"; Hoppe-Seyler's "Physiological Chemistry," enriched with a part embracing the chemistry of the secretions and the general metabolism of the tissues. The bibliography for 1881, published in the "Journal of Physiology," embraces in the department of "text-books, methods, etc.," seventy titles; of general phys

iology and the general properties of protoplasm and cells, twenty-nine titles; of general chemistry of tissues of animal and vegetable substances, seventy titles; of the structure and properties of cartilage, bone, and connective tissue, seventeen titles; of the blood, its structure and general features, thirty-seven titles; of circulation, fifty-nine titles; of the lymphatic system, ten titles; of respiration, twenty-two titles; of perspiration, one title; of the alimentary canal, digestion, etc., thirty titles; of the liver, bile, glycogen, etc., fourteen titles; of the kidneys, urine, etc., forty-two titles; of general metabolism of the body, twenty-nine titles; of animal heat, eleven titles; of the structure of contractile and nervous tissues, sixteen titles; of the general properties of contractile tissues, muscle, and nerve, forty titles; of the central nervous system, sixty-seven titles; of the eye and vision, seventy-seven titles; of the ear and hearing, nine titles; of the skin and touch, twelve titles; of taste, two titles; of smell, six titles; of speech and locomotion, one title each; of reproduction, etc., nineteen titles; of the action of drugs, etc., eighty-two titles; of ferments, germs, etc., sixty-seven titles. These works are in the English, French, German, Italian, Dutch, Swedish, and Danish languages. Those among them which appear as American_publications are Professor H. N. Martin's "The Human Body," Witkowsky's "Human Anatomy and Physiology," Le Conte's "Monocular and Binocular Vision," Deems's "Hand-Book of Urinary Analysis," Stowell and Prudden's "Histologies," Lloyd's "Chemistry of Medicine," Hamilton's Significance of Facial Hairy Growth among Insane Women," Prudden's Experimental Studies on the Transplantation of Cartilage," Mason's " Microscopic Studies on the Central Nervous System of Reptiles and Batrachians," Clark's "Brain Lesions and Functional Results," Dalton's "Centers of Vision in the Cerebral Hemispheres," Ott's "Inhibition of Sensibility and Motion," Warren's "Columnæ Adiposa," Ott's "Physiolog ical Action of the Active Principle of Piscidia Erythrina," Prudden's "Action of Carbolic Acid on Ciliated Cells and White Blood-Cells," and Sternberg's accounts of experiments and investigations in the production of septicemia by the subcutaneous injection of human saliva, on disinfectants, on the etiology of malarial fevers, and on bacteria in urine.

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The accounts of physiological investigations are continually given as they are made in periodical publications which discuss the subject, either alone or in connection with affiliated sciences, of which the principal ones are the "Journal of Anatomy and Physiology," the "Journal of Physiology," "Brain," the

Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science," and the "Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society," in England; the " Archives de Physiologie Normale et Pathologique," the "Journal de l'Anatomie et de la Physiologie de

l'Homme et des Animaux," the "Gazette Médicale," the "Revue des Sciences Médicales," and the "Comptes Rendus" of the Academy of Sciences, in France; the "Archivs" of Du Bois-Reymond and of Pflüger, the "Zeitschrift für Biologie," the "Zeitschrift zur Anatomie und Physiologie," Virchow's "Archiv," and numerous special publications in Germany; and the "Archivio per le Scienze Mediche," the "Archivio per l'Anthropologia e la Etnologia," and the "Rivista di Frenatria," in Italy; besides a number of publications in the Netherlands and the Scandinavian states.

PITURI. Pituri, pitury, pedgery, or bedgery, as it is variously called, is a sedative prepared from the dried leaves and twigs of an Australian plant possessing narcotic properties much resembling those of tobacco. It is probably the plant formerly known as Anthocercis Hopwoodii, or Duboisia Hopwoodii as classed by Baron von Müller, and recently named Duboisia pituri by Dr. Bancroft, belonging to the order of Solanacea. Pituri is obtained with difficulty from the blacks, who greatly prize it. The plant grows in the country of the Mulligan or Kykockodilla tribe, a part of the almost unexplored regions near the center of Australia. The dried pituri has a pale-brown color, and emits a smell resembling that of tobacco. Inhaled in the form of dust it causes sneezing. Its habitat is a district about one hundred miles broad and two hundred miles

long, lying between the twenty-third and twenty-fifth parallels of southern latitude, and extending on both sides of the boundary between New South Wales and South Australia. It is, as described by Bancroft, a shrub growing eight feet high, and having a stem sometimes six inches through at the base. The wood is light, close-grained, and of a lemoncolor when newly cut, giving forth an odor like vanilla. The leaves are pointed at both ends, three inches long and one fourth of an inch wide. The flower has a small, funnelshaped corolla spreading into five blunt divisions. The fruit consists of black berries. The natives chew pituri, first mixing it with the ashes of leaves, so that the alkaloid may not be liberated too rapidly. The effects seem to be similar to those induced by tobacco-smoking. Piturine is a volatile, oily alkaloid, of a dark-brown color, closely resembling_duboisine, the alkaloid of Duboisia myoporoides, but differing in having a burning, acrid taste, and irritating the eyes and respiratory passages to a greater extent. It has an odor like that of tobacco. Petit, on analyzing a small quantity in Paris, came to the erroneous conclusion that it is identical with nicotine, with which alkaloid it has fewer analogies than with duboisine. The formula is C.H.N.

POPULATION, THE CENTER OF, IN THE UNITED STATES. This title, as it is used, is intended to indicate the center of gravity of

the

in 1880 was found to be in latitude 39° 4' 8", longitude 84° 39′ 40′′. This places it in Kentucky, one mile from the south bank of the Ohio River, and one and a half mile southeast of the village of Taylorsville. That is, it is eight miles west by south from the heart of the city of Cincinnati. This position is shown in the diagram on page 755.

The method by which this determination was made may be briefly explained.

A point was first assumed as nearly as possible to the true position of the center. Through this point a parallel of latitude and a meridian of longitude were drawn. In this case the center was assumed at the intersection of the parallel of 39° with the meridian of 84° 30', which lines were taken as the axes of moments.

A north or south moment is the product of the population by its distance from the assumed parallel; an east or a west moment is the product of the population by its distance from the assumed meridian. In the first case the distances were measured in minutes of arc; in the second case it was necessary to use miles, on account of the unequal length of the degrees and minutes in different latitudes. The population of the country was then grouped by square degrees, i. e., by areas included between consecutive parallels and meridians, as they are convenient units with which to work. The population of one hundred of the principal cities was then deducted from that of their square degrees and treated separately. Then the population of each square degree was assumed to be at its geographical center, except in cases where this was manifestly an incorrect assumption. In these cases its position was estimated as nearly as possible. The population of each square degree, and of each city north and south of the assumed parallel, was multiplied by its distance from that parallel, and the sum of the north and of the south moments made up. Their difference, divided by the total population of the country, gave a correction to the latitude, the sign of the correction being positive if north, negative if south. In a similar manner the east and the west moments were made up, and from them the correction in longitude was made.

The above is, essentially, the method heretofore pursued for determining the center of population; and, for purposes of comparison, it was employed in 1880.

The center of population in 1870, as at the time of the census preceding, was computed by a method differing in some details from that above. For this purpose a point was assumed entirely outside of the country, and correction made therefrom to the true center. Instead of the square degree, the county was taken as a unit, and the lever-arm of the population of the county was taken as the distance from the geographical center of the county to the axes of moments. The labor involved in this method was much greater than that in the

last method, inasmuch as many more units were used, and as the length of the lever-arm differed in every case.

In 1790 the center of population was at 39° 16.5' north latitude and 76° 11.2' west longitude, which a comparison of the best maps available would seem to place about twenty-three miles east of Baltimore. During the decade of 1790 to 1800 it appears to have moved almost due west to a point about eighteen miles west of the same city, being in latitude 39° 16'1' and longitude 76° 56'5'. From 1800 to 1810 it moved westward and slightly southward to a point about forty miles northwest by west from Washington, being in latitude 39° 11.5' and longitude 77° 37-2'. The southward movement during this decade appears to have been due to the annexation of the Territory of Louisiana, which contained quite extensive settlements.

From 1810 to 1820 it moved westward, and again slightly southward, to a point about sixteen miles north of Woodstock, Virginia, being in latitude 39° 57′ and longitude 78° 33'. This second southward movement appears to have been due to the extension of settlement in Mississippi and Alabama, and in Eastern Georgia.

From 1820 to 1830 it moved still westward and southward to a point about nineteen miles southwest of Moorefield, in the present State of West Virginia, being latitude 38° 57.9' and longitude 79° 16.9'. This is the most decided southward movement that it has made during any decade. This appears to have been due in part to the addition of Florida to our territory, and in part to the great extension of settlements in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkansas, or generally, it may be said, in the Southwest.

From 1830 to 1840 it moved still farther westward, but slightly changed its direction northward, reaching a point sixteen miles south of Clarksburg, West Virginia, being in latitude 39° 2' and longitude 80° 18'.

During this decade settlement had made decided advances in the prairie States and in the southern portions of Michigan and Wisconsin, the balance of increased settlements evidently being in favor of the Northwest.

From 1840 to 1850 it moved westward, and slightly southward again, reaching a point about twenty-three miles southeast of Parkersburg, West Virginia, latitude 38° 59' and longitude 81° 19', the change of direction southward being largely due to the annexation of Texas.

From 1850 to 1860 it moved west, and slightly northward, reaching a point twenty miles south of Chillicothe, Ohio, this being in latitude 39° 0'4', longitude 82° 48'8'.

From 1860 to 1870 it moved westward and sharply northward, reaching a point about forty-eight miles east by north of Cincinnati. This northward movement is due in part to the waste and destruction in the South consequent upon the civil war, and in part, probably, to the fact that the census of 1870 was defective

in its enumeration of the Southern people, especially of the newly enfranchised colored population. In its present position, the center of population has returned south ward nearly to the latitude which it had in 1860. This southward movement is, however, due only in part to the fact of an imperfect enumeration at the South in 1870. The Southern States have made a large positive increase during the decade, both from the natural growth of the existing population and from immigration in the Southwest.

The closeness with which the center of population, through such rapid westward movement as has been recorded, has clung to the parallel of 39° of latitude, can not fail to be noticed. The most northern point reached was at the start, in 1790; the most southern point was in 1830, the preceding decade having witnessed a rapid development of population in the Southwest-Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana having been admitted as States, and Florida annexed and organized as a Territory. The extreme variation in latitude

has been less than 19', while the ninety years of record have accomplished a movement of longitude of nearly 81°. Assuming the westward movement to have been uniformly along the parallel of 39° latitude, the westward movement of the several decades has been as follows: 1790-1800, forty-one miles; 1800-1810, thirty-six miles; 1810-1820, fifty miles; 18201830, thirty-nine miles; 1830-1840, fifty-five miles; 1840-1850, fifty-five miles; 1850-1860, eighty-one miles: 1860-1870, forty-two miles; and 1870-1880, fifty-eight miles-a total westward movement of 457 miles. The sudden acceleration of movement between 1850 and 1860 was due to a transfer of a considerable body of population from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast, twelve individuals in San Francisco exerting as much pressure at the then pivotal point, viz., the crossing of the eightythird meridian and the thirty-ninth parallel, as forty individuals at Boston.

The following cut, with the accompanying table, shows the movement of the center of population since 1790:

P E-N-N

PARKERSBURG

79

1850

W

CHARLESTON

R.

R

Shenandoah R.

G

N I

Rappahannock

Westward move

ment during

preceding decade.

Miles.

41

86

50

89

55

55

81

42

58

457

PORTUGAL (REINO DE PORTUGAL), a kingdom in Southwestern Europe. King, Luis I, born October 31, 1838, the son of Queen Maria II and of Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg; succeeded his brother, King Pedro V, November 11, 1861; married October 6, 1862, to Queen Pia, born October 16, 1847, the youngest daughter of the late King Vittorio Emanuele of Italy. Issue of the union are Prince Carlos, Duke of Braganza, born September 28, 1863; and Prince Affonso, Duke of Oporto, born July 31, 1865.

The fundamental law of the kingdom is the "Carta Constitucional" granted by King Pedro IV, April 29, 1826, and modified by an additional act dated July 5, 1852. The crown is hereditary in the female as well as in the male line, but with preference of the male, in case of equality of birthright. The Constitution recognizes four powers in the state: the legislative, the executive, the judicial, and the moderating power, this last being vested in the sovereign. There are two legislative Chambers: the "Camara dos Pares, or House of

Peers, and the "Camara dos Deputados," or Chamber of Deputies, which together form the "Cortes Geraes," or General Cortes. The peers, unlimited in number, but actually comprising one hundred and thirty-three, are named for life by the sovereign, by whom also are nominated the President and VicePresident of the First Chamber. The members of the Second Chamber are chosen in direct election by all citizens possessing a clear income of 133 milreis ($66.50). The deputies must have an income of at least 300 milreis ($150) per annum, save in the cases of lawyers, professors, physicians, or the graduates of any of the learned professions, who need no property qualification.

The executive power resides, under the sovereign, in a responsible Cabinet divided into seven departments or ministries. The members of the Cabinet were as follows, in 1881: Minister of the Interior, Councilor Antonio

Rodrigues Sampaio, President of the Council (March 25, 1881), and member of the Privy Council (1865); Minister of Foreign Affairs, Councilor Dr. E. R. Hintz Ribeiro, appointed April 5, 1881; Minister of Finance, Councilor L. V. de Sampaio e Mello, appointed March 25, 1881 Minister of Justice and Public Worship, Councillor A. de Barros e Sá; Minister of Public Works, Commerce, and Industry, Councilor Dr. E. R. Hintz Ribeiro; Minister of War, Colonel C. P. Sanches de Castro; Minister of Marine and of the Colonies, Councilor Dr. J. Marques de Vilhena.

The Portuguese Minister Plenipotentiary to the United States is Viscount das Nogueiras, accredited October 8, 1878; and the Portuguese Consul-General (for the Union) at New York is Senhor A. M. da Cunha Soto Maior.

The United States chargé d'affaires in Portugal is Mr. B. Moran, accredited November 9, 1876; and the United States Consul at Lisbon

is Mr. H. W. Diman.

By the terms of a law passed June 23, 1864, the strength of the army was fixed at 30,128 on the peace footing, and 68.450 on the war footing. But financial considerations restrict the actual strength (July 1, 1880) to 18,185 rank and file, consisting chiefly of infantry, the cavalry numbering but 2,497, and the artillery 1,385, officers and men. The troops in the Portuguese colonies number 8,500 infantry and artillery, exclusive of a reserve of 9,500 men.

The navy, in 1880, was composed of 24 steamers and 14 sail of the line, most of the latter laid up in port. The steam craft comprised 9 corvettes (one iron-clad), 12 gunboats, and 6 sloops, with an aggregate armament of 139 guns, and a total of 4,460 horse-power. There were (1880) in the navy 262 officers of all ranks, 1 vice-admiral and 11 rear-admirals, and 3,307 men.

In the budget approved by the General Cortes for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1882, the estimated revenue and expenditure, in contos and milreis (1 conto = = 1,000 milreis; 1 milreis $1.08; 5,624: 448 means 5,624 contos and 448 milreis), figured as shown in the following table: