This list is shown separately from that immediately preceding on account of the distinctive wording of the laws. The meaning is not essentially different and therefore the checking should be done in the same way as is suggested there.

(d) STATES REQUIRING DEFINITE WEIGHTS FOR SALES BY WEIGHT.-The States in the next list establish a legal weight for various commodities, but specifically limit it to apply to cases where the sale is actually made upon a basis of weight: District of Columbia, Indiana, Mississippi, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Virginia.

In these States if the purchaser has not demanded that the transaction be upon a weight basis, the purchase must be checked by the use of dry measures.

(e) STATES NOT REGULATING THIS MATTER.-Wyoming has no law establishing standard weights per bushel or requiring sales of dry commodities by weight.

While dry measures appear to be legal in this State, the usual practice is to sell dry commodities by weight and therefore they will usually be checked by weight.

(f) CHECKING DRY COMMODITIES BY DRY MEASURES.-In States of all the above classes if a legal weight for any dry commodity is not established and it is not provided that dry commodities be sold by weight only, the checking must be done by dry measures.

(g) INTERPRETATION OF STATE LAWS.-A legal question is presented whether many of the above laws require for fractional parts of the bushel, such as pecks, quarts, etc., the same fractional parts of the legal weight established. However, a reasonable view of the matter would be that such was the intention of the law. Therefore, when a peck, quart, or other fractional part of a bushel is purchased, the weight calculated by multiplying the legal bushel weight by the fractional part of the bushel purchased may be used for checking purposes.

7. Purchasing Commodities

(a) IN GENERAL.-When a housewife makes her purchases in person she should watch carefully the manner of selling the commodities in the store, for here frauds can often be avoided, and complaints made at once will be very effective.

The weight per bushel of potatoes only is established by law in the District.

The first precaution to be observed is always to order a definite amount of a commodity. When practicable, the buyer should avoid asking for a "basket," a "can," or a "pail," since these terms are not definite, or for "10 cents' worth," or a "quarter's worth," etc., since in many such cases he will not know to how much he is entitled, but rather he should specify a "pound,” a "quart," a "peck," etc., as the case may be.

Next, the unit price of the commodity should be known, since lack of this knowledge will prevent ascertaining the accuracy of the price charged, even though full weight and measure is delivered.

Also it is businesslike to see that the exact amount in terms of weight or measure is recorded upon your sales slip or bill and not merely the kind of commodity and the total price of the amount delivered.

(b) BY WEIGHT.-In buying commodities by weight, the buyer should note that the scale is correctly balanced before the commodity is put upon it, since many errors or frauds result from scales set "fast."

While the commodity is being weighed the purchaser should read the scale. If it is an equal arm scale operated with loose weights, it must be brought to balance. It should be seen that the proper weights are on the pan. If the scale has a poise sliding over a graduated beam, the beam must balance correctly and the poise be in the proper notch. If the scale is automatic, having a pointer traveling over a reading face, or a graduated face revolving past a fixed point, the amount of weight indicated by the instrument after the pointer or chart has come to rest should be verified. (c) BY LIQUID MEASURE.-In observing sales by liquid measure the buyer should see that the measures are clean, properly filled, and that the full amount of the contents is poured out.

(d) BY DRY MEASURE.—In observing sales by dry measure one should see that the measure actually holds its full apparent capacity; for example, that there is no false bottom in it. When the measure has been filled, take care that bulky commodities are not stacked into it in such a way that large spaces are left between the individual units and around the sides of the measure. Bulky commodities should be well heaped up and fine commodities fill the measure level full. Also one should make sure that all of the commodity in the measure is actually delivered.

79843°-15- -3

(e) BY LINEAR MEASURE.—In observing sales by linear measure the buyer must see that commodities like cloth are not unduly stretched, and if counter tacks are allowed in place of linear measure, that the proper tacks are employed and the measurement is not made from one end to an intermediate tack marking some fractional part of the full length purchased.

(f) CHECKING TOTAL PRICE CHARGED.-When the commodity has been weighed or measured, the total price should be checked by multiplying the amount purchased by the unit price so as to

FIG. 11.-Fraudulent basket (with side partially cut away exposing smaller basket woven inside, making false sides and bottom)

The purchaser sees only the outside basket but the inside basket is the one that is filled-a delivery short by an amount equal to the difference in sizes resulting.

check any inaccuracy in the dealer's computation. In many sales, especially in the sale of meats, where even pounds are not often delivered, it is very easy for the dealer, either accidentally or with fraudulent intent, to overcharge a few cents on a purchase.

The above precautions are given to assist in preventing the delivery of short amounts, but should not be relied upon to the exclusion of the use of the test set of weights and measures in the home. For it should be remembered that even though the amounts delivered are correct according to the merchant's apparatus, still the accuracy of the latter may be uncertain.

8. Special Methods of Checking Certain Commodities and Containers

(a) COAL.-After coal has been delivered, its weight can be checked only roughly. If shortages are suspected, the details should be reported to the local inspector, who should be able to reweigh the coal furnished, or at any rate check the weight of the next delivery, if notified when this will occur. A weight ticket should be furnished by the seller, showing the net weight of the coal claimed to be delivered. The quantity of coal delivered may be roughly checked by ascertaining the amount in the bin, provided this is empty before the new coal is put in. If the bin is rectangular, with a level bottom and vertical sides, this is accomplished as follows: Measure the exact length and the exact width of the bin in feet and fractions of a foot. Then level off the top of the coal and measure its depth in the same unit. The product of the length and width of the bin, multiplied by the average depth of the coal will be the number of cubic feet of coal in the bin. Multiply this result by the weight of the coal per cubic foot, as given below, and the product will be the approximate number of pounds of coal in the bin. This evidence alone would not be accepted by a court, but it may be used to detect gross shortages and as a basis of complaint to the local sealer.

The average weight per cubic foot of anthracite (hard) coal varies with the size into which it is broken, and with the kind of coal or the vein from which the coal comes. The latter variation is nearly 10 per cent, but the figures given below are the average of several different kinds and will probably represent the average coal purchased within 2 or 3 per cent. Red-ash coal is somewhat lighter than that giving white ashes, hence, two sets of values are given below:

Average Weight of Anthracite Coal in Pounds per Cubic Foot

The weight of bituminous (common soft) coal varies even more than that of anthracite, according to the locality from which the coal comes, and about the best figure that can be used is 47 to 55 pounds per cubic foot.

Example. Find the number of pounds of a white ash anthracite coal of nut size in a bin 6 feet long and 4 feet 3 inches wide, with vertical sides, the coal filling the bin to an average depth of 2 feet 6 inches. Then, following directions and taking from the above table the weight of a cubic foot of white ash nut coal as 55.5 pounds:

Area of bottom=6 feet by 4.25 feet=25.5 square feet.

Volume of coal=25.5 square feet by 2.5 feet = 63.75 cubic feet.

Weight of coal = 63.75 by 55.5 =3538 pounds.

If in this case 2 tons of coal were charged for, and the measurements were accurately made, the purchaser may be fairly certain that full weight has not been delivered.

In a few localities, notably Maryland, District of Columbia, and Philadelphia, coal is required to be sold by the gross or long ton of 2240 pounds, while in others the net or short ton of 2000 pounds will ordinarily be employed.

(b) WOOD IN CORDS.-In purchasing wood by the cord one is entitled to and should receive for each cord, wood consisting of or equivalent to a pile, closely stacked, 8 feet in length, 4 feet in breadth, and 4 feet in height. This is true whether the wood is in 4-foot lengths or whether it has been sawed and split before purchasing. This latter point has been much misunderstood in the past, and because wood may shrink somewhat when the 4-foot wood is sawed and split, many dealers have assumed that a lesser amount of wood in this condition may be delivered for a cord. There is no authority for this contention, and it must be considered that a less amount of wood than 128 cubic feet, whatever be its condition at the time of sale and purchase, is not a cord. If, however, one buys a cord of 4-foot wood, to be sawed

5 This is not true in Minnesota, where the law provides as follows (Laws of 1913, chap. 560, sec. 5): "Standard Measurement of Wood.-In all contracts for sale of wood, the term 'cerd' shall mean 128 cubic feet of wood, in 4 foot lengths; and if the sale is of 'sawed wood, 'a cord shall mean 110 cubic feet when ranked, or 160 cubic feet when thrown irregularly or loosely into a conveyance for delivery to the purchaser; and if the sale is of 'sawed and split wood,' a cord shall mean 120 cubic feet, when ranked, and 175 cubic feet when thrown irregularly and loosely into a conveyance for delivery."