of the Old World, and, while that is the case, the Jefferson politics may continue to exist without causing any fatal calamity. But the time will come when New England will be as thickly peopled as old England. Wages will be as low, and will fluctuate as much with you as with us. You will have your Manchesters and Birminghams, and in those Manchesters and Birminghams hundreds of thousands of artisans will assuredly be sometimes out of work. Then your institutions will be fairly brought to the test. Distress every where makes the laborer mutinous and discontented, and inclines him to listen with eagerness to agitators who tell him that it is a monstrous iniquity that one man should have a million while another can not get a full meal. In bad years there is plenty of grumbling here, and sometimes a little rioting. But it matters little. For here the sufferers are not the rulers. The supreme power is in the hands of a class, numerous indeed, but select; of an educated class; of a class which is, and knows itself to be, deeply interested in the security of property and the maintenance of order. Accordingly, the malcontents are firmly yet gently restrained. The bad time is got over without robbing the wealthy to relieve the indigent. The springs of national prosperity soon begin to flow again: work is plentiful, wages rise, and all is tranquillity and cheerfulness.

I have seen England pass three or four times through such critical seasons as I have described. Through such seasons the United States will have to pass in the course of the next century, if not of this. How will you pass through them? I heartily wish you a good deliverance. But my reason and my wishes are at war, and I can not help foreboding the worst. It is quite plain that your government will never be able to restrain a distressed and discontented majority. For with you the majority is the government, and has the rich, who are always a minority, absolutely at its mercy. The day will come when in the State of New York a multitude of people, none of whom has had more than half a breakfast, or expects to have more than half a dinner, will choose a legis lature. Is it possible to doubt what sort of a legislature will be chosen? On one side is a statesman preaching patience, respect for vested rights, strict ob servance of public faith. On the other is a demagogue ranting about the tyranny of capitalists and usurers, and asking why any body should be permitted to drink champagne and to ride in a carriage while thousands of honest folks are in want of necessaries. Which of the two candidates is likely to be preferred by a working-man who hears his children cry for more bread? I seriously apprehend that you will, in some such season of adversity as I have described, do things which will prevent prosperity from returning; that you will act like people who should in a year of scarcity devour all the seed-corn, and thus make the next a year not of scarcity, but of absolute famine. There will be, I fear, spoliation. The spoliation will increase the distress. The distress will produce fresh spoliation. There is nothing to stop you. Your Constitution is all sail and no anchor. As I said before, when a society has entered on this downward progress, either civilization or liberty must perish. Either some Cæsar or Napoleon will seize the reins of government with a strong hand, or your republic will be as fearfully plundered and laid waste by barbarians in the twentieth century as the Roman Empire was in the fifth, with this difference, that the Huns and Vandals who ravaged the Roman Empire came from without, and that your Huns and Vandals will have been engendered within your own country by your own institutions.

If you can derive any comfort as to the future destinies of your country from your conviction that a benevolent Creator will never suffer more human beings to be born than can live in plenty, it is a comfort of which I should be sorry to deprive you. By the same process of reasoning, one may arrive at many very agreeable conclusions, such as that there is no cholera, no malaria, no yellow fever, no negro slavery, in the world. Unfortunately for me, perhaps, I learned from Lord Bacon a method of investigating truth diametrically opposed to that which you appear to follow.

* Buckle, in his history of Civilization in England, I., 666: In 1776, the Americans laid before the world that noble Declaration, which ought to be hung up in the nursery of every king and blazoned on the porch of every royal palace. In words, the memory of which can never die, they declared, that the object of the institution of government is to secure the rights of the people, and that from the people alone it derives its powers.'

UNIVERSITY OF LEIPSIC.

HISTORY.

THE UNIVERSITY OF LEIPSIC, established in 1409, started vigorously with a sudden accession of German students and professors out of Prague, in consequence of an interference by the King of Bohemia to deprive the German students of certain special privileges which the Emperor Charles IV., in its foundation, had accorded to them in the organization into nations. Exasperated by this procedure, all the students affected by it, with their professors, left, and thus gave rapid development to Cracow, Ingoldstadt, and Leipsic. In Leipsic a school for the training of ministerial boys had been established as early as 1213, in connection with the Cathedral of St. Thomas; and in 1395 a school for grammar and the liberal arts existed under the control of the city authorities. A movement had been begun by Margrave Frederic the Warlike and his brother William, to erect a university, which put Leipsic in readiness to receive the refugees from Prague. It consisted first of the three faculties of Arts, Theology, and Law, and in 1438 obtained the privilege of appointing two medical professors. When, in the division of the territory, the University fell to Duke Ernest, he was instrumental in introducing the study of mathematics on account of the mining interests of his dominion, and his son was instrumental in having the newly developed studies of Italy represented in the teaching force.

Leipsic has from the beginning held a high position among the universities of Germany, and has always secured and retained in the different faculties one or more representative men in every science. Gillert, Ernesti, Platner, Morus, Dathe, Keil, Schaefer, Titman, Beck, Hermann, Rosenmüller, Heinroth, are among the names whieh grace her annals. At the time of Prof. Dwight's* visit to Europe in 1825-6, and Dr. Robinson's* in 1829-30, Leipsic was universally regarded as second to no other, not even Berlin, for the profound and varied scholarships of its professors. "Over Saxony it has poured a flood of intelligence, rendering this land for ages, the intellectual garden of Germany."

* Dr. Robinson's account of the Universities of Germany-both in detail, and in the general organization, administration, studies and student life, in the Biblical Repository for January 1831: and Prof. Henry E. Dwight's letters, devoted to Göttingen, Berlin and Halle, written in 1826, and printed in 1829, were among the earliest and are still among the most reliable expositions of these institutions in the English language.

studying the outward manifestations of intellectual activity. At certain hours of the day the streets of the inner city, in the neighborhood of the university building, were thronged with students on their way to and from lecture. More particularly was this noticeable at one o'clock, when the midday pause comes in. The arched ways and courts of the quondam Dominican cloister, with all the avenues of approach, resembled a huge swarming ant-heap. Hundreds, thousands of young men, Mappe in hand, were hastening away to their rooms and their dining-places. Although there was no disorder, none of the turbulence and boisterous demonstrations that distinguish an American class let loose, it was almost impossible to make one's way against the surging mass of humanity. On one occasion I amused myself, while enjoying an after-dinner cup of coffee in the Café Français, by studying the motley composition of my neighbors. The upper rooms of the Café are given up to smokers, and at this hour of the day nearly all the guests are students. To my left sat a party of Poles sibilating to their hearts' content over a game of draughts. To my right, a sedate party of Greeks, men of thirty or thirty-five, puffing cigarettes and conversing in an undertone. Directly in front, Germans boisterous over 'Scat.' In the adjoining billiard-room, three or four of my countrymen still more boisterous over pool, 'damning scratches' and taking for granted, with the license that prevails among Americans on the Continent, that no one could understand them. The whole world seemed to be represented in that post-prandial reunion in the smoking-room of the Café Français. Coming fresh from the scenes of the Vienna Exhibition, I thought to myself that Leipsic too was a World's Fair, a standing parliament of the nations. The quiet Saxon town had made the world its tributary. Among its students were men who had played the role of professor at home, men well on in the thirties and even forties, who had saved up a few hundreds and had come from the four quarters of the earth, had crossed mountains and continents and oceans, in quest of the fountain of knowledge.

The reader has before him the materials with which to construct an image of the great university in its magnitude and its variety. Let him add thereto the city gymnasiums, with their numerous staff of highly educated teachers, the celebrated Conservatory of Music, the many scientific and literary institutions, the bureaus of countless periodicals that have their headquarters here, the great publishing houses of Brockhaus, Teubner, Tauchnitz, and others scarcely less renowned, each one of which has its personnel of critical proof-readers, editors, and literary advisers, and finally the many authors themselves residing here permanently. The aggregation of talent and culture is startling. The city throbs with the pulsations of intense and sustained intellectual effort. Leipsic is the head-center for the culture of the most productive nation of the present day. Only London, Paris, and Berlin, I am persuaded, surpass it in the number of men of learning, while in proportion to its population-barely 100,000-it is without a peer.

general discipline. One course of lectures (four or five hours a week) is his quantum of work. If he is successful enough to establish two or three courses, the lecture-fees are his private gain.

University Life in Leipsic.

I passed two months in Leipsic in the summer of 1872. Being pressed for time, I took the first apartment that I could find, without stopping to advertise or to bargain. It consisted of a study, with two windows facing on the main street, and a sleeping room with one window. Both rooms were commodious, perfectly clean, and well furnished. The furniture was, for Germany, almost elegant. I paid ten thalers a month. The same quarters could not be obtained in New York for less than $10 a week. Breakfast, consisting of two cups of coffee, bread and butter, and eggs, served in my room, cost five thalers a month. My dinner at Müller's restaurant, one of the best in town, cost, including a glass of beer, twelve thalers. Supper, a substantial warm meal, averaged about ten thalers. The aggregate of my expenses for living, then, was thirtyseven thalers a month. I venture to say that for this trifling sum I lived better, that is, more at my ease, feeling that I got more for my money, than I have ever succeeded in doing, under like circumstances, in America. As it was, I paid too much. I was a stranger, in a hurry, and unable to take the time for devising ways of economy. One located per manently in Leipsic could live fully as well for three-fourths of the amount. Many a good room can be had, by hunting after it, for six thalers a month. The incidental expenses of life in Germany are nothing, as compared with those in America. An excellent suit of clothes can be purchased for twenty-five or thirty thalers, a pair of shoes for five or six thalers. Amusements are also very cheap. By purchasing a seaticket for the Schützenhaus, the great concert garden of the city, the price of admission is reduced to three cents an evening. For this trifling sum, one has the entrée to a large and beautifully illuminated garden; the music, lasting from eight to eleven o'clock, is furnished by two large bands that play alternately in different sections of the garden. In addition to the music, there is a display of acrobats. The best reserved seats at the opera and theater cost only one thaler. But subscription-seats can be obtained at less than half the price.* There are numerous readingrooms, where one can have access to all the periodicals, magazines, and reviews, for a mere pittance, not to speak of the newspapers taken in the cafés.

During my stay in Leipsic I was too much absorbed in my private studies to take very careful note of the world around me. Besides, it was the long vacation for the greater part of the time. But in 1873, on my return home from Vienna, I stopped for a few days to make some purchases. Having complete disposal of my time, I employed it in

⚫ It would be ungrateful in me to fail to mention the delightful motets delivered gratuitously every Saturday afternoon in the Church of St. Thomas.

Prof. Hart in his German Universities gives the following notice of Leipsic :

Number of Salaries and Income of Professors.

In the summer of 1874 there were 141 professors of all grades and faculties, for 2,940 students, viz., for 399 in Protestant Theology, 1,012 in Jurisprudence and Public Economy; 906 in Philosophy, and 559 in Medicine.

Of the total expenditures, 275,454th go for salaries and the apparatus of instruction, say ninety per cent. of the whole. Even deducting the 18,618 paid to employés would leave the per centage at almost eighty-five.

The above statement takes no account of lecture-fees. These fees, although paid in first instance to the university treasurer, are not entered in the general fund, but are transferred directly to the respective professors. So little are they regarded as an item of university income, that my informant has not even thought it necessary to give them. Assuming that there are 3,000 students, in round numbers, and that each one pays only twenty-five thalers a year,-a low average, and one that makes ample allowance for such poor students as obtain a remission or abatement of their fees, we get the sum of 75,000, which sum is to be added of course to the 157,863 of official salaries. It is an interesting feature, and one that reveals in the strongest light the radical difference between Germany and America, that what we regard as the main source of support for our colleges, their life-blood, is not even entered by the University of Leipsic in the official statement of its income.

Ac

The highest salary is about 3,500 thalers, but some of the professors are in receipt of gratuities (Zuschusse) in addition. Thus the ordinarius of the law-faculty has an addition of at least 1,000, the directors of the hospitals have about 600 in addition, and so on. This does not include lecture-fees, which, in many cases, must amount to 2,000 or 3,000. cordingly our best paid man can not be in receipt of less than 7,000. But this, to be sure, is a highly favored position (eine glänzende Ausnahmestellung). The minimum for an ordinarius is, at present, about 1,000. Most of the ordinarii receive 1,800 to 2,000. The average income of the ordinarii would be 2,500. As to the extra-ordinarii, no fixed rule prevails. A few receive no salary, others receive only 500, others again 1,000. One, if I mistake not, receives 1,200.

These salaries will appear, at first sight, decidedly meager. Yet it should be borne in mind that money is only a relative notion. Whether a person in receipt of a fixed sum is well off or poorly off, depends upon the purchasing power represented by that sum. I should rather take my chances as Ausserordentlicher of the Leipsic faculty with 500 thalers a year, than as an American assistant-professor with $1,000. The Leipsic man has one decided advantage over his American colleague. His official duties are light, and lie altogether in the direction of his chosen studies. He is not called upon to give instruction to classes for twelve, fifteen, or even twenty hours a week, nor is his time frittered away in enforcing