labour unions to contend with, and in a form which we, in this country, in our wildest notions, had little conception. There the unionism had a much more marked and stronger characteristic than with us; it was carried so far that he believed the labour representatives in the New Zealand Legislative Assembly numbered some thirty per cent. of the whole body of the Legislature. The result was that they were enabled to insist upon, and carry legislation such as would be unheard of in this country, and this formed a severe barrier to trade. A third difficulty in the way was a matter referred to in Mr. Walker's paper, the remarkable combination, in which the owners, by joining together, artificially maintained the price of coal. The result of such a policy in this country had been found to be an evil when it was expected to have been of great advantage. The fourth difficulty was the instance they had in Australia of the manner in which the State came to be the landlord, but the remarkable good that was supposed to accrue from that had failed to be experienced. He believed there were many people who think if we had State occupation of coal-fields here it would be of great good. In Australia the terms on which the State offered the coal-fields to those who chose to lease them were so low that a man would come and take up a large coal-field and hold it in his own hands; when the time came that he was to let or sell it to somebody else he exacted rather more than would have been exacted in the ordinary way if let by the occupier of the land. The effect of this, of course, would be to cause great differences in the collieries. One finds that an average over the last twenty years had produced a degree of profit unknown in this country, and no doubt, when Mr. Walker came to reply on this discussion, he would be able to give them an idea as to how the loss had been brought about in the Newcastle coal-field.

Professor A. S. HERSCHEL said he did not know if the papers mentioned the probable amount of coal in New Zealand and Australia in comparison with the English coal-fields; also the probable duration at the present rate of consumption. He believed the New Zealand coal-fields contained some 1,200,000,000 tons, as against 150,000,000,000 in England, and that the rate of output was half a million per annum in New Zealand, as against 160,000,000 tons in England. He observed that the New South Wales coal-field contained 14,000,000,000 tons of coal, or about ten times the extent of the New Zealand coal-fields. If these were about the figures he would like to hear further what figures the Queensland coal-fields might have to furnish.

The PRESIDENT said there was only one question he wished to ask Mr. Cox, and that was whether the whole area attached to the Newcastle district had been explored, because some time ago he heard there was some doubt as to whether the whole of the coal extended over that part. It was very interesting to learn that the chief town was called Newcastle, and that all the modes of thought and modes of action were similar to those in force in Northumberland and Durham. The working of the coal was the same as it used to be in these districts; and there was another circumstance, which seemed to him very curious, and that was that the very way in

which that syndicate-as the term now was-had been formed was the same as that which had previously been in force in the North. Of course it was many years ago, but he remembered it, and no doubt Mr. Bainbridge and Mr. Cochrane would remember it too, when they had what was called the "Regulation of the Vend." There was a certain volume of coal which it was supposed to be proper to produce for the demand at that time in Northumberland and Durham, and each colliery had apportioned to it a certain quantity of this. The committee who regulated the vend issued their edict that each colliery should sell so many chaldrons of coal. This system existed for many years, and had, he believed, existed long before he could remember anything about it. It sometimes happened that one colliery had its greatest sale in the summer time, and another in the winter, and from this and other causes the regulation of the vend ceased to exist. One colliery exceeded its quantity, another was short, and in the end the whole thing was broken up and was not in existence at the present time. It was very singular that all these customs should have been introduced and taken such a firm hold in Australia.

Mr. G. BLAKE WALKER said that with regard to the influence of "protection," it was clearly understood that it was by the protection principle in Victoria, amounting to something like 25 per cent. ad valorem duty that its manufacturing industries had been forced in an unnatural way. One result of intercolonial free trade would be the removal of the hot-house industries of Victoria to some spot on the coal-fields; and a large iron industry would spring up as soon as a certain amount of protection was commenced in New South Wales, which would no doubt be within the next twelve months, and an increase in the consumption of coal would take place. The effect of the Government owning the coal was that large areas were opened out long before there was any necessity for them. It was a misfortune for those already in the field, but a good thing for the public. With regard to the quantity of coal which might exist in the coal-fields, so far as exploration had already gone, it seemed premature to estimate it. It was not even known, as Mr. Cox had pointed out, whether the seams in the south were the same as those found in the north, or as to what existed between. He might say this without offence that Australians generally were apt to take over sanguine views of their prospects, and therefore the figures found in hand-books, etc., should be taken cum grano. With regard to the vend arrangement, he looked forward to its coming to a speedy end. There were a great number of collieries which must either force their coal into the market or go into bankruptcy, and if so, the vend arrangement was not likely to prevent them from underselling. Those collieries near Newcastle harbour with the thickest coal, and paying practically nothing for it, would stand a better chance than those farther away who had to pay higher rates and who had less command of labour.

That gentleman

Mr. Cox said he thanked Mr. Binns for his corrections. had only lately come from New Zealand and was better acquainted with the

recent workings.

He was not aware that the Coal Pit Heath and GreymouthWallsend Mines had been reopened; he had noticed in recent official documents that the output of the Kawa Kawa coal-field had increased of late, and had hoped that a new period of prosperity was in store for these mines. He was sorry to hear that this was not so.

The PRESIDENT was sure they would accord a vote of thanks to Mr. Walker and Mr. Cox for the very valuable papers which they had read. The subject of the coal trade in Australasia was an important one, and would no doubt in future years grow to a greater extent. As to how long the coal-fields would last, he thought it was scarcely worth while making such an enquiry. They had had the same question in England, and since it was answered they had discovered many seams of coal which they never previously thought of, and there was no doubt more coal could be got now than was then stated to be the limit. He thought the same thing would apply to the Australasian coal-fields. He had pleasure in moving a vote of thanks to the authors of the papers.

The vote of thanks was unanimously accorded.

Mr. J. MCLAREN read the following paper on "The Economical Use of Steam in Colliery Engines":

THE ECONOMICAL USE OF STEAM IN COLLIERY ENGINES.

BY JOHN MCLAREN.

Twenty-five or thirty years ago, mining engineers in Lancashire and the great coal-fields of Northumberland and Durham began to realize the waste of fuel which was daily going on in connexion with the steam engines in use upon the colliery works to which they were attached. The impression was, no doubt, accentuated by the high prices realized by coal during the few years of abnormal prosperity which followed the great war between France and Germany. As every ton of coal wasted represented a ton less to sell, the lesson of economy was brought home in a very practical manner in those days of very high prices. Consequently, managers were moved to try to introduce improved engines with the view of economizing their own coal as much as possible. The result was, that a large number of very fine pumping and winding engines were put down in various parts of the country. But as the steam at that time was mostly generated by the old-fashioned and wasteful egg-ended boiler, the action of the colliery engineers in putting down fine engines looked rather like beginning at the wrong end. However, the question of boilers also came to be considered, and now the egg-ended pattern is rapidly becoming obsolete, and its place is being taken by more economical steam generators. Nevertheless, there is still much room for improvement, as anyone can see who observes the manner in which steam, and consequently fuel, is wasted, by continuous blowing-off from the safety valves of colliery boilers, as well as by its extravagant use in improperly constructed engines. Although this paper is intended to deal principally with engines, the question of boilers is too important to be passed over without comment. The most useful and practical forms of steam boiler are sufficiently well known to require no detailed description. The egg-ended boiler, which happily promises to become speedily extinct, was in almost general use twenty-five years ago. Its cheapness in first cost is dearly purchased by its extravagant wastefulness of fuel. The low evaporative duty which can only be obtained from this type of boiler is due to the small amount of heating surface it presents to the action of the heated gases (viz., from 5 to 7 square feet per nominal horse-power), which thus escape up the flues at a very high temperature. An egg-ended boiler is not, as might be supposed, easily or cheaply kept in repair, and as a large percentage of them ultimately explode, causing serious loss and damage, they are in the long run the dearest type of steam boiler which can be employed. They are being rapidly displaced by Cornish and Lancashire boilers, which not only give double the amount of heating surface per nominal horse-power, but such area, consisting largely of internal flue surface, is more valuable from a steaming point of view than much of the heating surface of an egg-ended boiler. The proportion of heating surface in these boilers is about 14 square feet per nominal horse-power.

Tubular, or water-tube boilers, are largely used on the Continent and in America, and they are coming into somewhat limited use in this country. Their economy, however, is doubtful, and in actual tests a great disparity in results has been noted. the evaporation varying from 7 to 10 lbs. of water per lb. of coal; but even with the higher evaporation, their economy is not by any means established, as it is well known that their construction induces priming to a greater or less extent, so that the duty obtained from the boiler is more real than apparent. In priming, the steam of course carries a certain amount of water in the form of fine spray in suspension, which is an absolute disadvantage to the engine, though it makes the evaporation of the boiler appear very good.

The locomotive type of boiler is, however, unquestionably the best and most economical steam generator in practical use. It has also many other advantages which should have secured for it a much more general adoption than it has been hitherto accorded. It requires no expensive brickwork seating, but can be set down on a few flags or bricks laid upon the surface of the ground. The whole of its external surface can be covered with non-conducting material, which can be readily removed for complete examination and repairs. It presents at least 20 square feet of heating surface per nominal horse-power. It can be stayed so as to be absolutely safe at pressures up to any practical limit. It occupies the least space of any boiler in proportion to its power, and gives the extremely high evaporative duty of over 11 lbs. of water per lb. of coal. They can be made up to 100 nominal horse-power each. There is an unreasonable prejudice against these boilers in the minds of some steam users, owing to their supposed greater wear and tear, though in practice they will be found to cost no more in the long run for repairs than Cornish or Lancashire boilers doing equal duty. The efficiency of a boiler is estimated by the rapidity with which it generates steam, and the smallness of the amount of the fuel with which this result is attained. Measured by this standard the locomotive type of boiler must take the very first place.

The evaporative efficiency of the different types of boiler may be stated approximately as follows:

Egg-ended boilers 4-6 lbs. of water evaporated by 1 lb. of coal from and at 212° Fahr.

The most perfect boiler and the best steam engine are, however, but clumsy and extravagant instruments for the conversion of heat into work. Each pound of good Welsh coal contains over 16,000 units of heat. Each unit of heat is theoretically equal to 772 foot-pounds, so that the theoretical value or duty of 1 lb. of coal is 12,537,280 foot-pounds or about 6 horse-power per hour. Hitherto it has been found impossible to construct engines and boilers capable of giving off anything like the amount of work corresponding with the theoretical value of the coal. In the best authenticated experiments the highest economy attained has been one horse-power for a consumption