possibility obtain more than she now has, viz., that which she purchased from Russia in 1867, and to all of whose rights she succeeded; at the same time the United States can lose heavily. For the inclusion in Canadian territory of only one port, like Pyramid Harbor or Dyea on the Lynn Canal, would greatly lessen for the United States the present and future value of the Alaskan lisière. The evidence in the case is overwhelmingly on the side of the United States and shows that they are entitled, by long, uninterrupted occupancy and other rights, to an unbroken strip of land on the continent from Mount Saint Elias down to the Portland Channel. There is no more reason for the United States to allow their right to the possession of this unbroken Alaskan lisière to be referred to the decision of foreign judges, than would be the case if the British Empire advanced a claim to sovereignty over the coast of Georgia or the port of Baltimore and proposed that this demand should be referred to the judgment of subjects of third Powers. For if the claim of Canada to Alaskan territory is referred to foreigners for settlement, the United States can gain nothing, while they will incur the risk of losing territory over which the right of sovereignty of Russia and then of the United States runs back unchallenged for more than half a century. If France advanced a claim to the Isle of Wight and then asked England to refer her title to the island to the arbitration of foreigners, would Great Britain consent? And for the English Empire to advance a demand to many outlets upon tide water on the northwest coast of America above 54° 40′ and then ask the United States to submit this claim to the arbitration of the citizens of third Powers, is a similar case. Whether the frontier should pass over a certain mountain top or through a given gorge is a proper subject for settlement by a mutual survey. But by no possibility has Canada any right to territory touching tide water above 54° 40'. The United States should never consent to refer such a proposition to arbitration.

THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE.

Stated Meeting, held Wednesday, December 18, 1901.

THE EVOLUTION OF FIRE-ARMS AND ORDNANCE AND THEIR RELATION TO ADVANCING CIVILIZATION.

BY GENERAL JOSEPH WHEELER, U. S. A.

During the ages prior to the invention of printing and the making of books, the world seemed almost to stand still. It is true that great minds have existed in all ages as they do to-day. They were manifested by superb excellence in music, painting, architecture, and in literature, both poetry and prose; but when one mind was so fortunate as to make its impress upon the world, millions of equally great intellects lived and died without adding to the intelligence, happiness and well-being of mankind.

Great Thinkers in all Ages.-Evidence is abundant that inchoate thoughts and marvelous inventions were evolved and partly, if not wholly, developed during every century in the far-back, almost hidden ages of the past, most of them dying with the mind that conceived, and others recorded only so imperfectly that the greatest ideas were soon neglected and forgotten.

Each new thinker commenced at the foot of the ladder, and, though he reached a high eminence, he died and left no better starting point than he enjoyed when he commenced his work of investigation.

It is true that accidental observation puts thoughts in people's minds which we call inventions. Newton saw an apple fall to the ground, and the thought of gravity was impressed upon him. Another saw the lid of a teapot forced up by the confined steam, and the power thus manifested taught him the principle of the steam-engine.

Gunpowder: How Invented.-It is said that gunpowder was first invented in China and India many centuries before the Christian era. In many localities in those countries

VOL. CLIII. No. 915.

13

the soil is impregnated with nitre. All cooking at that time was by wood fires, and the people lived in tents and huts with earth for their floors. Countless fires made of wood upon ground strongly impregnated with nitre must have existed every day, and when such fires were extinguished, a portion of the wood must have been converted into charcoal, some of which would, of necessity, become mixed with the nitre in the soil. By this means two of the most active ingredients of powder were brought together, and it is very natural that when another fire was kindled on the same spot a flash might follow. This would lead to investigation, and then the manufacture of gunpowder was conceived. Whether this be true or not, we have abundant evidence that the origin of gunpowder and artillery goes far back in the dim ages of the past.

Fire-Arms before Christian Era.-The Hindoo code, compiled long before the Christian era, prohibited the making of war with cannon and guns or any kind of fire-arms. Quintus Curtius informs us that Alexander the Great met with fire weapons in Asia, and Philostratus says Alexander's conquests were arrested by the use of gunpowder.

It is also written that those wise men who lived in cities on the Ganges" overthrew their enemies with tempests and thunderbolts shot from the walls." Julius Africanus mentions shooting powder in the year 275. It was used in the siege of Constantinople in 668; by the Arabs in 690; at Thessalonica, in 904; at the siege of Belgrade, 1073; by the Greeks in naval battles in 1098; by the Arabs against the Iberians in 1147; and at Toulouse, in 1218. It appears to have been generally known throughout civilized Europe as early as 1300, and soon thereafter it made its way into England, where it was manufactured during the reign of Elizabeth, and we learn that a few arms were possessed by the English in 1310, and that they were used at Crecy in 1346.

Guns Used against English, 1327.-Greener says (page 5): "Barbour, in his life of Bruce, informs us that guns were first employed by the English at the battle of Werewater, which was fought in 1327, about forty years after the death of Friar Bacon, and there is no doubt that four guns were

used at the battle of Crecy, fought in 1346, when they were supposed to have been quite unknown to the French, and aided in obtaining the victory for British arms. Froissart gives an excellent representation of a cannon and cannoneers in 1390."

Formidable Weapons in Pre-Historic Age.-We have much evidence to prove that far back in the pre-historic age weapons existed of a most formidable character. That they were effective at a long distance is well established, and that the mastodon, the cave bear, and other powerful animals were killed by them is evidence of their deadly

nature.

The boomerang and the throwing stick found in the hands of the Australian savage could hardly be improved upon or even equalled at the present time, and it is doubtful if any material improvement was made in weapons of war during the many centuries from the earliest historic age down to the time when fire-arms became generally used as instruments of warfare.

Long-Bow and Cross-Bow were Destructive.-The long-bow and cross-bow were very formidable and destructive weapons. The battles of Poictiers and Agincourt were won almost entirely by soldiers armed with the bow, its length being about the height of a man, and the greater part of the victorious army at Crecy were armed with the same weapon. Marvelous stories come to us as to their range, but probably 600 yards is the longest authentic flight of an arrow from bows of that character, and 400 yards was regarded as an exhibition of great skill.

The cross-bow is of very ancient origin. It is mentioned in the Bible and by Josephus. Pope Innocent III forbade the use of so cruel and barbarous a weapon as the cross-bow against Christians, but sanctioned its use against infidels. Contrary to the orders of the Pope, King Richard I introduced the cross-bow in England, but its use was discouraged by Henry VII, Elizabeth, James, and Charles I, although in 1572 cross-bowmen were sought to engage in the service of Charles IX. The first guns used by soldiers seem to have been called hand-cannon.

Hand-Cannon and Matchlock.-The "hand-cannon,' as first used by the French, Italians, and Netherlanders, consisted of a small bombarde affixed to a straight piece of wood, and fired from the shoulder by means of a match.

The first account of the use of hand-cannon in Germany was in 1381, and at the close of the fifteenth century handcannon or small fire-arms were in use throughout Europe as military weapons.

The matchlock was in use in 1460, but the opposition to the use of guns, especially hand-guns, was very determined. Armored knights clamored loudly against the use of firearms. Thick armor would generally repel arrows which so often glanced, and knights were seldom killed; but the advent of guns and bullets made the armor of little value as a protection. Gunshot wounds were regarded as certainly mortal, and much opposition to the use of guns was manifested. Small cannon were used at Crecy, their first certain employment on the field of battle.

An old French writer says:

"No use has yet been made in France, in 1547, of that terrible weapon against men. The French used it with good effect against some castles in 1338, but they would blush to employ it against their fellow-creatures. The English, less humane, without doubt outstripped us, and made use of some at the celebrated battle of Crecy, which took place against the troops of King Edward III, of England, who was so spiteful and treacherous that he plagued Philip de Valois and his troops to the last; and the greater part of the terror and confusion was occasioned by the cannon, which the English used for the first time, and had placed upon a knoll near the village of Crecy, and to which the French assign their defeat."

Skill of English Archers.-The skill of the archers of England with the long-bow and the lack of skill with the gun caused many to prefer the bow to the gun as a weapon of warfare.

In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Sir John Smith, a general of much experience, stated that the bow was the superior of the hand-gun, and although he was taken up sharply