Palace. There are in all 48 churches, some of great size and beauty, two monasteries and a uunnery.

In the Citadel is an obelisk 76 ft. high, erected in memory of Minin and Pojarsky, the deliverers of Moscow.

The town is noted for its great annual fair, which takes place in July and August, and which is attended by upwards of 200,000 persons. It is held on a spacious plain between the two rivers Oka and Volga. In the midst of this space, towards the end of July, an immense township suddenly starts into existence, having churches, hospitals, barracks and theatres. A handsome building is erected in the centre of the bazaar, in which, during the continuance of the fair, the governor of the town, with a numerous train of officials resides.

Round the public offices are ranged the European wares. Next follow the Armenians. Nearly a whole side of the bazaar is occupied by the Chinese market, in which tea is the chief article of trade. Here are merchants from Europe; Bokharians, Khivans, Kirghizes, Tartars, Armenians, Persians, and Chinese, all engaged in buying and selling, and surrounded by a motley group of visitors, not less amusing, in their individual characteristics, than the fair itself.

Merchandise, to the amount of £16,000,000, often changes hands during the short time the fair lasts.

ROUTE 155.

ST. PETERSBURG TO BERLIN, BY WARSAW.

(The route from St. Petersburg to Wilna, is described in Route 152; that between Bromberg and Berlin, in Route 104.

From Wilna to Warsaw, 256 miles; 1st class, 11 r. 63 c.; 2nd, 8 r. 73 c.; 3rd, 4r. 86 c.

men.

pass several stations, including Poreche (77% miles), (Buffet), and reach Grodno, a town of 25,000 inhabitants, situated on the NieIt was the ancient capital of Lithuania, and su subsequently the residence of the kings of Poland. Here are some handsome churches, a palace, and a fine bridge across the river. Passing Bialystok, population 15,000, and several other places, we reach Lapy (1633 miles), (Buffet), and about four hours afterwards

WARSAW (256) miles), (Hotels: de l'Europe, d'Angleterre, de Paris), population, 185,000. This was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Poland; it is situated on the left bank of the Vistula, and is connected by a bridge of boats with the suburb of Praga, on the opposite side of the river. It is enclosed by a rampart and fosse, entered by ten gates, and defended by a vast citadel, recently erected.

It has several large public squares, among which that of Sigismund, adorned with a bronze colossal statue of Sigismund III., is particularly deserving of notice. Among the principal public buildings, are, the Cathedral of

St. John, a Gothic building of great beauty, containing statuettes and many interesting monuments, including one by Thorwaldsen; the Church of the Holy Cross; Carmelite and Lutheran churches, the latter a fine structure; the Zamek, or ancient palace of the Polish kings; the Palace of Casımir, adorned in front with a statue of Copernicus; the Saxon palace, with fine gardens and a promenade; the Krasinsky palace; the arsenal, mint, exchange, and national theatre.

Warsaw is an extensive commercial emporium, and has two large annual fairs, each of which lasts three weeks.

Of the castles in the vicinity, the residence of Sobieski is still remarked for its beautiful gardens, and for an equestrian statue of John Sobieski.

Since 1815, Warsaw has been the residence of a viceroy, representing the Emperor of Russia.

Leaving Warsaw, we pass Ruda Guzovska, (28 miles), and reach SKIERNIEWITZ (42 miles), population, 3,200. Here a branch goes to Vienna. Lovitsh, population, 5,000, situated on the Bzur, is a commercial town, celebrated for its horse fairs. Kutno, situated on the Okhna, has 6,000 inhabitants. Vlotslavek, population, 8,000, situated on the Vistula. A considerable trade is done here in corn. Alexandrov is the last Russian station. The first Prussian station is Otloczyn. We presently reach THORN, (Hotel: Sans Souci),

town of 16,500 inhabitants, situated on the right bank of the Vistula, opposite Podgurcze, with which it is connected by a bridge about 900 yards long. This was the birthplace of the great astronomer, Copernicus, whose tomb is in the church of St. John. The Hótel-de-Ville is partly of the

fourteenth, partly of the sixteenth century. The Krumme Thurm is a leaning tower, about 50 ft. high. We observe a curious old gateway, called Kulmer Thor, the ruins of a castle dating from the thirteenth century, and tower called Katzenschwanz. BROMBERG. (For the remainder of the Route, see Route 104.)

ROUTE 156.

ST. PETERSBURG TO
STOCKHOLM, BY SEA.

HE distance run by the steamers is about 540 miles. Steamers leave St. Petersburg and Stockholm Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. Time occupied, usually 2 days. The steamers run only by day, the great number of islands and shoals rendering night navigation dangerous. The first night is spent at Helsingfors, the second at Abo, and Stockholm is reached on the third.

Leaving St. Petersburg we pass the powerful fortress of Cronstadt,

and reach

HELSINGFORS (252 miles), (Hotels: Society's House, Kleineh), ou the north coast, nearly opposite Revel. This town, of 20,000 inhabitants, is the capital of Finland, and, next to Cronstadt, the most important naval station on the Baltic. A series of formidable batteries, known as the fortifications of Sweaborg, consisting of seven fortified islands, protect the harbour. Such is the strength of these fortifications, that the name of the Northern Gibraltar has been given to them. They mount over 1,000 guns, and 12,000 men are required to garrison them. Helsingfors is the handsomest

town in Finland; the streets generally intersect at right angles, and there are several handsome squares. The Lutheran church, on a hill near the University, is a beautiful edifice, and presents a striking appearance as the traveller approaches the city. The Greek church, a little outside the town, is also an imposing edifice. The Governor's house, the Senate House, and the University buildings are also fine. The University has 60 professors, and the number of students is usually 600. The library contains 90,000 volumes. During the Russian war the fortifications were fruitlessly bombarded during two days, August 9th and 10th, 1855, by ships of the allies. Helsingfors possesses some beautiful promenades, among which may be specified the forest of Standswik, and the gardens of Traeskenda.

We now proceed to

ABO (400 miles), (Hotels: Society's House), population 20,000. It is situated on the east coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, near its entrance, in a bay covered over with islands. Founded in the 12th century by St. Eric, and endowed with a University in 1630 by Gustavus Adolphus, this town was almost wholly destroyed by a

conflagration in 1827. The University has been transferred to Helsingfors. The quaint old Cathedral, which dates from the 12th century, is well worth visiting. The old castle, which is a conspicuous object, dates also from the 12th century. We now proceed nearly due west, and, passing on the right the Aland islands, reach STOCKHOLM. For a description of this city see Route 159.

The steamers from Stockholm to St. Petersburg remain during the first night at Abo, and generally remain at Helsingfors several hours. The railway is complete from Helsingfors to St. Petersburg. Time, 16 hours.

Besides the old established line of steamers between Stockholm and St. Petersburg, there is a new line from Stockholm to HANGO, a town on the Gulf of Finland, between Abo and Helsingfors, from which place there is a railway to St. Petersburg. The steamers leave Stockholm every Monday and Friday, at seven o'clock in the evening, and leave Hango every Wednesday and Saturday, on the arrival of the train from St. Petersburg. By this line St. Petersburg is reached in 36 hours after leaving Stockholm. (1878.)

DENMARK.

HE continental portion of Denmark is bounded on the north by the channel of the Skager-rack, on the west by the North Sea, on the south by Germany, and on the east by the Baltic Sea and the Kattegat.

The total area is 14,553 English square miles, and the population, at the last census, taken in 1860, was 1,608,362.

The continental portion of Denmark belongs to the great European plain, and is almost entirely level. There are some inequalities of surface in the interior of Holstein, but the elevation is very inconsiderable. The coasts are generally low, and the western shores are in many places protected from inundations of the sea by means of dykes, as in Holland.

The rivers are inconsiderable

164. CHRISTIANIA TO BER

GEN BY THE FILLE-
FJELD

165. BERGEN TO HAMMER

FEST.

699

700

in point of size; the Eyder, which forms the boundary between Sleswig and Holstein, flows into the North Sea, and is navigable for small vessels below the town of Rendsburg, whence a canal connects it with the town of Kiel, on the Baltic coast. Near the eastern borders of the kingdom is the Trave, which flows into the Baltic below Lubeck.

There are a great number of lakes, both on the mainland and in the island, generally of small size.

The islands that belong to Denmark comprise, besides those situated at the entrance of the Baltic, Iceland, and the group of the Faroe Islands.

The climate of Denmark is humid, but generally temperate; vapours and moist fogs are of frequent occurrence, owing to the abundance of water; but these are dispersed by the strong winds which prevail during a great part of the year.

The winter is frequently severe, and both snow and rain are of almost constant occurrence during that season.

MONEY.-One mark is 16 rigsbank skil. equal to 44d. English, or 9 cents U.S. money. Six marks make one rigsbank dollar, equal to 2s. 3d. or 56 cents. Two rigsbank dollars make 1 specie dollar, equal to 4s. 6d. or 1 dollar and 12 cents.

SWEDEN and NORWAY Occupy the north-western portion of Europe-a peninsular region to which the name of Scandinavia has been given. Norway lies along the western side of the peninsula: Sweden occupies its eastern and broader division. Although distinguished by separate names the two countries form, in reality, but parts of one region in a geographical sense, and they are united politically.

The kingdoms of Sweden and Norway were consolidated into a single state in 1814.

The entire area of the Scandinavian peninsula is 292,700 square miles, of which Sweden contains about 170,000.

The seas, rivers, and lakes generally abound in fish. In the Lofoden Islands, the fisheries not only supply a large proportion of the ordinary food of the peasantry, both in Sweden and Norway, but a great quantity of the better kind is exported.

The rivers in the northern part of Norway are much resorted to by visitors on account of the abundance of fine salmon which they contain.

The peculiar physical character of Norway gives rise to considerable variations of climate throughout the country. On the coast generally, rain and fogs prevail; while in the regions near the North Cape, storms are almost incessant, and rage with extraor

dinary violence. In the interior the air is clear and dry.

In Norway proper the winters, as a rule, are long and cold; and the summers, which rapidly follow the melting of the snows in April and May, are warm and pleasant. On the islands, however, the heats of summer are often insufficient to ripen the corn. The protracted winter of the northern regions follows almost suddenly on the disappearance of the sun, when the absence of solar light is compensated for by the frequent appearance of the aurora borealis, which shines with sufficient intensity to allow of the prosecution of ordinary occupa

tions.

The chief rivers of Norway are the Glommen, Lougen, Louven, Drammen, Otter, and Wormen. The first of these has a course of 400 miles, but the majority of Norwegian streams, all of which rise at great elevations, have a comparatively short course, and are not navigable.

Sweden forms three great regions-Swealand in the centre, Gothland in the south, and Nordland in the north. These are divided politically into 24 governments, or Läns, of which 8 are in Sweden proper, 12 in Gothland, and the remaining 4 in Nordland, which last division includes the Swedish portion of Lapland.

Unlike Norway, Sweden possesses few high mountains, but contains numerous lakes of large dimensions. In the northern parts the land rises gradually from the Gulf of Bothnia to the Kiolen Mountains, which form the boundary between Sweden and Norway.

South of 62° north latitude the slope is directed southward, attaining its lowest level in the vicinity of the three great lakes of Wenern, Mälar, and Hielmar,