ORAMMAR is the science of language, and its principal use is to enable those who study it to express their thoughts with correctness and propriety, so as to be understood by those whom they address.

It must always be remembered that grammars can only define, but cannot determine, the correct use of language. This depends, in every instance, upon the forms of t thought and meaning to be conveyed; and in all languages was settled and employed long before the studies of grammarians commenced. And at this very time it may be seen how completely powerless are all the grammatical treatises on our own tongue, now existing, to prevent such changes as the disuse of the subjunctive mood of verbs, etc., from being made in the forms of the English language; by which the power of expressing some finer shades of meaning must be greatly circumscribed, if not entirely lost.

The best method, therefore, to be pursued by any one who desires to become practically and thoroughly acquainted with his mother-tongue, is carefully to read some select works of our best authors, in the manner now to be described, with the help of such a compendious grammar as that contained in the following pages. This method, by the peculiar interest it excites, relieves the study of all drudgery; and at the same time furnishes one of the most satisfactory means of intellectual training, and an available introduction to the study of any other

language to which the attention may afterward be directed.

2. The following paragraphs form the commencement of Lord Bacon's Essay,

"OF STUDIES.

"I. Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability.

"II. Their chief use for delight is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and fox ability, is in the judgment and disposition of busi

ness.

III. For expert men can execute and perhaps judge of particulars, one by one; but the general counsels and the plots, and marshaling of affairs, come best from those that are learned.

"IV. To spend too much time in studies is sloth; to use them too much for ornament is affectation; to make judgment only by their rules is the humor of a scholar.

"V. They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience; for natural abilities are like natural plants, that need pruning by study, and studies themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience.

"VI. Crafty men contemn studies; simple men admire them; and wise men use them, for they teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them and above them, won by observation.

"VII. Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider."

3. In the first paragraph we find something spoken of," studies," and something said about them, viz., that they "serve" for certain purposes, as "for delight,"

Here the three purposes mentioned in the former paragraph are the things spoken of; and certain things are said about each of them, though not exactly in the same manner as those purposes were said to be answered by "studies," above. These two parts, therefore-something spoken of, and something said about it-we may note as essential to a complete and intelligible sentence of the kind before us; and we may adopt the names given to them by grammarians-subject and predicate; which, signifying precisely what has just been said, require no further explanation.

5. Paragraph (3) we arrange thus:

Both subjects and predicates here are somewhat complex. "Expert" is prefixed to "men;" "general" to "counsels; " and to "the plots and marshalling" are appended the words "of affairs; " just as in paragraph (2) "chief" was prefixed to "use, and "for delight, for ornament, and for ability' added to the same word, with the evident intention of circumscribing and defining it. And with a similar intention, the meaning of "can execute and judge of " is carried out and completed by "particulars" and "one by one;" and that of the latter predicate, "can judge of," is further limited by the word "perhaps" being attached to it. In the second part of the paragraph, also, “from those that are

learned," and "best," are appended to the predicate "come." And so in paragraph (1), "for delight, for ornament, and for ability," follow the word "serve; and in paragraph (2), after " is," comes "in privateness and retiring, in discourse," etc.

It is evident that these appended words and phrases, although they are of the highest moment to the full and precise expression of the thoughts, when regard is had to the structure of the sentences alone, are not essential, but subordinate parts thereof. And they have accordingly received from grammarians distinct names; those employed to describe and define subjects being designated attributives; and those employed with predicates, for the purpose of modifying and supplementing their meaningobjects; which terms we will use for the future, to avoid trouble and confusion.

6. But we may observe further, that the attributives, which have occurred in these paragraphs, are of two kinds. One kind (like the subjects) consists of names of things, called by grammarians nouns; as "delight," "ornament," "ability," "business,' "affairs; and these have before them the little words of " and "for," which are known as prepositions, to attach them to the subjects. The other kind consists of epithets merely, and not of names, chief," "expert," "general;" and they are called adjectives.

as

In paragraph (3) we find another word, "the," used very much in the same way as adjectives are used; except that its sole force is to point to the subject particularly spoken of; whence it has been named the demonstrative. And in paragraph (2) there is a word, "their," in form closely resembling it; but (in this instance) meaning, "of studies." It is plainly an adjective; but it is also called a pronoun, from its being thus used instead of a noun.

One other word, "and," which occurs in the subjects of these paragraphs, requires a passing glance. Its use is obvious; it connects certain parts of sentences together, so as to save much repetition, and the inconveniences that must result from it, and it is designated a conjunction.

7. Before we speak of the different kinds of objective words and phrases which we meet with in these paragraphs, some further notice should be taken of the predicates. In paragraph (1), and in the second example in paragraph (3), they are perfectly simple, consisting of the words "serve" and "come " alone;

words which convey assertions, and speak of some sort of action, and are called verbs. "Can execute and judge of" (observe the use of the conjunction) are also verbs, but the latter has a preposition attached to it, to bring it into a particular relation with the objects that follow; and to both of them is prefixed the word "can," which alters their force from the assertion of action to the assertion of the mere capability of it. In paragraph (2), again, we have for predicates, "in privateness and retiring," in "discourse," etc.,-which are plainly nouns with prepositions; and the quality of predicates is given to them by the employment of the word "is" with each, which changes them from attributives into assertions. "Is" must consequently be called a verb, although it only expresses being and not action. The complex character of these predicates must be observed, and the conjunctions, the demonstrative, and the addition of the attributive," of business," to one of them (which happens because they are actually nouns) carefully noted.

8. Turning now to the objects, we see in paragraph (1) that they indicate the purpose or effect of the action expressed by the verb; and, in this example, are nouns attached to the verb by the help of prepositions," for delight," "for ornament," etc. In paragraph (3) the first object, "particulars,” which is also a noun, indicates that on which the action represented by the verbs "execute and judge of," takes effect. Observe, also, that just as in the words "studies," "plots," and "affairs," the fact that more than one of the kind is meant, is shown by the addition of the letter "s" to the ordinary word; whilst in the instance of "men," the same fact is indicated by the change of the vowel sound from "a" in man.

The second object, "one by one," is of a different kind. It indicates the manner of execution and judgment; and consists of a word signifying number, called a numeral, repeated, with a preposition. "Perhaps," which is the third object, belongs to the predicate, "judge of," only; and is inserted for the purpose of lessening the strength of the assertion conveyed by the predicate. Words like it are called by grammarians adverbs. The second object in the other example contained in this paragraph, "best," is of the same class of words; but, instead of lessening the force of the predicate, it is employed to intensify it.

9. "From those that are learned," is a very remarkable kind of object; for it contains a complete sentence in itself. The actual object is "those,” attached to the predicate by the preposition “from ;" and indicating the source and origin of the action expressed by the verb. "Those" is not, however, the name of anything; but it stands here for "those men ;" and thus partakes of the nature of pronouns, while it also serves demonstratively to point out the specific description of men spoken of. In consequence of its being in part a pronoun, it can have an attributive attached to it, and the sentence, "that are learned," serves as an attributive, to define and describe the "men" particularly intended.

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The predicate of this sentence, are learned," is of the same kind as those in paragraph (2), only an adjective takes the place of the nouns there used. The subject is neither a name nor an epithet, but a kind of pronoun, since it stands for "men," and plainly for the same men as "those " did; and, from its having relation thus to a noun already known, is called a relative pronoun. Sentences used in this manner are called accessory sentences, to mark their subordinate character, and their connection with the sentences of which they form parts, distinguished as principal sen

tences.

Only two words remain to be spoken of. "For," at the commencement of this paragraph, shows its connection in meaning with the preceding paragraph; or, more correctly, with the last sentence in it; for which it assigns a reason. "But," on the other hand, separates the two parts of this paragraph, by way of contrast; so that it is manifest that not the first, but the second part of it, contains the reason for the assertion made in the foregoing paragraph. Both words are called conjunctions, from their thus serving to connect otherwise disjoined and independent sentences together; yet it is evident that they are not conjunctions of the same nature as and."

10. Paragraph (4) contains the principal sen