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eminentissimi, &c., the latter on the other hand are designated as οἱ ἐλάττους, εὐτελεῖς, minores.

35. The term Sophist, always employed somewhat vaguely, and at times bestowed upon those philosophers who aimed at combining literary elegance of expression with scientific accuracy of thought, is henceforward used with reference to a class of teachers exhibiting many analogies with the Doctors and Masters of Arts in the academic schools of the middle ages. This circumstance is also indicated in the phrase professor artium by which the Sophists are known in Latin. It is worthy of notice how completely the invidious and contemptuous meaning once associated with the name was lost sight of in the third century. Libanius declined the title of Prefect of the palace, an honor bestowed upon individuals of the very highest rank. External honors of every kind, statues, the citizenship, imperial edicts, honorary psephismata, were lavishly bestowed upon distinguished Sophists. Their calling was regarded as the steppingstone to the highest dignities of State, and conferred by a codex of Theodosius the social position of Vicarius, a grade equivalent to the rank of Duke or count.* In accordance with this estimate of the dignity of their office we find that the instructors of higher schools regularly appeared amongst the nobility and magistrates who went forth to welcome a viceroy on his arrival at the seat of provincial government. Every circumstance in short goes to prove that this expression was employed at that period with precisely the same eminently honorable meaning which attaches to the name of professor at the present day. In the fourth century we read of the public appointment at Athens of four Sophists" (probably only the most eminent of the entire body) in a manner precisely similar to that of the philosophers previously mentioned.

36. The minor arrangements of the school of Athens at this stage

1. Cresoll. Theatr. Rhet. IV. 11.

2. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 380. σοφισταί, οἱ διδάσκαλοι, καὶ ὅσοι τῶν φιλοσόφων ῥητορικῶς ἔγραψαν.

3. A. Schott. Eunapii vit. extr. See also an expression of Philostratus quoted by Cresoll. Theatr. Rhet. I. 1. where the sophistic art is described as woλλǹ xai woɩkídŋ in its nature. Cresollius (IV, 5.) justly says of the sophists "partem omnium humaniorum literarum attigisse videntur quae excellenti et perfecto oratori sunt necessaria." The proper meaning of the word is seen in the expression which connects τὸ τεχνικὸν and τὸ σοφιστικόν as equivalent terms. That the name of Sophist was properly given to all who studied a subject as a profession, and discoursed upon it with fluency and eloquence is evident from the fact that not only physicians are so called by Eunapius, (compare the larpoσopioraì in Suidas) but that even at an earlier period those learned Soyers of antiquity whose artistic enthusiasm is such a favorite subject with the poets of later comedy are known in Athenaeus as σopiotai payeipikoć. (Athen. III. c. 60. Compare also Clemens Alexandr. Strom. I. p. 829. Potter.)

4. Cresoll. Theatr. Rhet. I. 8.

5. Reisk. ad Libanii Orat. wpòs 'Avaşivτiov, p. 190.

6. Liban. πρὸς τοὺς βαρὺν αὐτὸν καλοῦντας, p. 176.

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of its history no doubt corresponded in most respects with those of the learned institutions of Antioch concerning which such frequent and detailed accounts are furnished in the `orations and epistles of Libanius. In the latter city, which is described as being at that period the academic counterpart of Athens in the east, the professors of rhetoric not only received an annual salary (σúvražıç) from the magistrates of the town,' but were also paid by fees from the class, and Libanius in pleading for an increase of allowance to his colleagues points to the fact that Zenobius, a teacher of eminence, had received an augmentation of his salary from the proceeds of the public domain.2 The sum paid for admission to each class appears to have varied greatly, and poorer students seem frequently to have been permitted to attend free of expense. Philostratus, a writer of the third century, informs us that in the school of Proclus the payment of one hundred drachmae entitled the student to attendance upon the course as long as he thought proper, besides giving access to the use of the library. The fee for admission was paid on the first of every month, and could be recovered at law; the salary on the other hand was received annually. In this manner many of the Sophists are said to have amassed considerable fortunes. The lectures of Chrestus were attended by one hundred ἔμμισθοι ἀκpoarai," and Heraclides purchased an estate of ten talents from the accumulated earnings of tuition in rhetoric. The desire to secure for themselves the glory and the profit resulting from a numerously attended class naturally gave rise to the most furious competition on the part of this class of instructors, a fact significantly attested in the terms kaña and ȧrrikadñodai employed with reference to Sophists professing the same subject. Every contrivance of force and fraud was unsparingly employed on these occasions, and the whole machinery of a contested election in England of the olden time was actively set in play to secure for themselves the attendance of the new comers to the University. Students were induced to pledge themselves before matriculation, and agencies formally established for that purpose in foreign countries. The fiercest part of the struggle commenced upon their arrival in Attica. No expense seems to have

1. Liban. 'AvTIOXIKÓS. p. 883.

2. Liban. únèp тŵv pηróρwv. pp. 211, 212, 213.

3. Philostr. vit. Soph. II. p. 602.

5. Philostr. vit. Soph. II. p. 588. Morell.

6. Sea also Liban. περὶ τῆς ἑαυτοῦ τύχης λόγος. p. 187.

4. Vit. Soph. II. p. 600. Morell.

7. Business of this description seems to have been transacted by a species of committee (xopós) composed of partisans of the respective Sophists under the guidance of a senior (πрoσ• TÁTηs, ȧKPWμÍTNs). Photius Bibl. cod. 80. Cresoll. Theatr. Rhet. IV. 10 extr. Bernhardy Gr. der Gr. Litt. I. p. 450.

been spared by the principals in the contest. A fictitious appearance of popularity was sought to be obtained by paying students to attend and applaud at lectures' (vý Twv véwv.) Bands of academic partizans scoured the country in every direction, for the purpose of intercepting all who entered Athens by land; and all the mischievous activity of the commissionaires and hotel touters of the continent at the present day was indefatigably set in operation, in order to mislead and bewilder the inexperienced student on his first landing at the Piraeus. Libanius, in describing his own adventures, mentions that he was locked up by adherents of the opposition, and not released from captivity until he had bound himself by oath to attend the lectures of the professor whose cause they had espoused.' The feuds between the rival candidates for popular favor and support were zealously entered into by their respective disciples—a result the more readily brought about from the fact that each of the leading Sophists officiated as proctor of one of the four Nations, into which the University was divided-and the writers of the day gave a most animated picture of the academic combats which raged between the admirers of the contending rhetoricians.5

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37. The general plan of instruction seems not to have been altered from that which prevailed at the time of the first endowment of the University by Aurelian. In the philosophical classes lectures were delivered, at the conclusion of which difficulties and objections (anopia) were discussed by the professor. In the schools of rhetoric at Antioch public harangues (μελέται, ἐπιδείξεις) were pronounced before the class by the occupant of the chair at certain stated intervals. This performance generally took place between ten o'clock in the morning and noon (λnovons ȧyopās.) After such an oration the remainder of the day was regarded as festival or half holiday. At the entrance of each lecture room (TUλ) was suspended a tablet containing notices to the class. Students took copious notes of the lectures in books (déλro) kept for that purpose. Certain an

1. Liban περὶ τῆς ἑαυτοῦ τύχης λόγος, p. 45.

2. ὁρῶν ἄκρα, πέδια, ἐσχατίαι, οὐδὲν ὅτι μὴ τῆς Ἀττικῆς μέρος, ἡ τῆς λοιπῆς ̔Ελλάδος, αὐτῶν τῶν οἰκητόρων οἱ πλεῖστοι, καὶ γὰρ τούτους μεμερισμένους ταῖς σπουδαῖς ἐχουσίν. Gregor. Nazianz.

8. τῆς ἐπιούσης τε ἦν ἑσπέρας, καὶ ἐν χερσὶν οὐχ ὧν ἐβουλόμην· ἔπειτα τῆς ὑστεραίας ἐν ἑτέρων αὖ χερσίν, ὧν οὐδὲ τούτων ἐβουλόμην. Liban. περὶ τῆς ἑαυτοῦ τύχης λόγος. p. 18. Compare also another passage in the same speech: ἐβοῶμεν δὲ διεστηκότες, ὁ σοφιστὴς, μὲν ἐμοῦ, ἐκείνου δὲ ἐγὼ στερόμενος, τοῖς ἔχουσι δὲ λόγος οὐδεὶς τῆς βοῆς. 4. For an account of the Nations at Athens see § 57.

5. Liban. περὶ τῆς ἑαυτοῦ τύχης λόγος, p. 16; τοὺς τῶν χορῶν ἐν λέμους, καὶ ῥόπαλα, καὶ σίδηρον καὶ λίθους, καὶ τραύματα· κ. τ. λ. Eunap. vit. Julian. et Proaeres.

6. Aul. Gell. Noct. Att. 20. II. 2.

8. Liban. πρὸς τοὺς οὐ λέγοντας, p. 293.

μέσαις ταῖς ̓Αθήναις που Compare also Epist. 527..

7. Lucian. Hermotim. p. 750.

cient authors (Demosthenes and IIomer for the most part) were generally read as guides and models for original composition. The interpretation of these writers was preceded by a discourse (póλoyos) delivered by the instructor. That in the philosophical schools a species of moral discipline was also aimed at is evident from the ἀρχὴ ἐπὶ εὐκοσμίας τῶν ἐπιχειρούντων which Athenaeus (XII, 69) describes as existing amongst the Peripatetics in the time of Lycon, the third from Aristotle (A. C. n. 269-226). This office of which we have already spoken seems to have been assigned to one of the seniors of the sect, who remained in authority for the space of thirty days, when a banquet was celebrated and a successor appointed.

38. The design of the University as an initiation to all the most liberal, honorable, and important forms of life has seldom been recognized with greater distinctness than at this period. Libanius speaks of those who attended the school of Antioch as looking forward to becoming occupants of municipal offices (Bovλal), appointments in the imperial service (dlouhos móλewv), chairs in some of the various Universities (póvo), and to the practice of jurisprudence, Roman or provincial (éc, dikai).3 The general principle of all higher study is no where more clearly announced than in the words of Gregory of Nazianzus, who describes it as a prosecution of all subjects as one, and of each as equivalent to all (τὰ πάντα ὡς ἓν ἐξασκήσας, καὶ ἀντὶ πάντων ἕκαστον).

39. By a practice dating from the times of Aristotle, and borrowed apparently in the first instance from the Pythagoreans, the undergraduate population of the University, in addition to the distinctions arising out of national origin, and subjects of study, was divided into two classes, one of which was entitled to the full rights of studentship, while the other was regarded as merely preparing for entrance into the academic body. The latter, who are designated as belonging to the μovotior,' were taught in the earlier part of the day, and subjected to all the coercive discipline of an inferior school, though the vicious indulgences and outrageous feats of physical force® ascribed to them by Libanius prove that they must have attained to the age of the μɛénẞo at least. Both classes of students are men

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1. Liban. πρὸς τοὺς τοῦ παιδαγωγού βλασφημίας, p. 278.

2. Liban. πρὸς τοὺς βαρὺν αὐτὸν καλοῦντας, p. 179.

3. περὶ τῆς ἑαυτοῦ τύχης, p. 102.

5. Aul. Gell. Noct. Att. XX. 5.

7. Liban. Ep. 407. 1019.

4. Orat. X.

6. Aul. Gell. Noct. Att. I. 9.

8. Liban. repi тov rá#ηtos, pp. 255, 256.

8. Such as blanketing pedagogues, a performance magniloquently described by Libanius in

his oration περὶ τοῦ τάπητος.

tioned as being present at the public orations (μɛλérai, énideišeis) of the Sophists.1 Lectures seem to have been delivered in a public building, either wholly set apart, or simply granted for the temporary use of the University.' Instruction was also given at the residence of the professors (τα ιδιωτικα θέατρα). This however was probably only the case with those who wished to add the advantages of private tuition to the ordinary teaching of the University. At Antioch, Libanius gave instruction in the senate house, in the temple of Calliope, or in that of Apollo which was situated in the suburbs of the city. At Athens, in the siege of the city by Sylla during the Mithradatic war (A. C. n. 80), the Academy and Lyceum were laid waste in common with the other suburbs; and, though doubtless restored afterwards as far as possible to their original condition, were never again regularly employed for purposes of instruction; in consequence, as Zumpt' supposes, of the advance of malaria occasioned by the declining population. Henceforward philosophers delivered lectures in the town. The odeum was used for purely epideictic purposes.

40. Of the mutual coördination between the various parts of which the school of Athens was composed little is known with certainty. The Praesas of Achaia® is described by Eunapius and Libanius as in a manner discharging the functions of the Chancellor of the University, though mainly, it would appear, with a view to the maintenance of public order, which had been disturbed beyond endurance by the factions into which the academic world was divided. The Proconsul Carbonius is extolled by Himerius for having restored the discipline of the University, and suppressed the tumults for which it had at one time been so notorious. The individual appointed by the emperors to the Proconsulate was himself in many cases a cidevant Sophist (ȧrò Tv σopioTv), and therefore abundantly qualified by personal acquaintance with its circumstances and conditions to superintend the government of the University. At Antioch Libanius speaks of himself as presiding over four professors of rhetoric without specifying his relation to those who gave instruction on other subjects.

41. Hopelessly as the graceful and elegant thought of antiquity

1. Philostr. vit. soph. II, p. 600.

3. Eunap. p. 96.

2. Liban. ὑπὲρ τῶν ῥητόρων.

4. Liban. περὶ τῆς ἑαυτοῦ τύχης, p. 71. πρὸς Εὐστάθιον, p. 165.

5. Zumpt über den Bestand der Phil. Schulen in Athen, pp. 12, 15.

6. Eunap. vit. Julian, p. 97. Liban. wepì rŷs èavTOû Túxys λóyos, p. 19. Bernhardy Grund

riss der Gr. Litt. I, p. 450.

7. Orat. IV. §9.

8. ὑπὲρ τῶν ῥητόρων λόγος.

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