LONDON: THE METROPOLIS. London in government is an enigma to people of other countries, as no doubt it is also to some extent to the people of the United Kingdom, except so far as from their youth they may have been made familiar with its peculiarities. In any reference to the government, it is always essential to distinguish between the city proper, the ancient corporation known as the city of London, and which embraces, but little more than a mile square of territory, and the vast metropolis, which has grown up about the city, and which in common parlance, and in the commercial and political intercourse of the world, takes the name of London, though never in law a part of it. The city was an important town during the period of Roman supremacy, but the extent of its powers as a corporation it would be impossible now to determine. In subsequent periods, we know the city, first, as an association of tradesmen and industrial societies united for mutual protection, and exercising im portant powers for that purpose under claim of right, and with general public acquiescence. These powers were such as properly pertain to corporations; and whatever may have been their origin, they in time became rightful by prescription. The societies or guilds were severally composed of persons of one industrial calling, and their purpose in organizing was to ensure proficiency in the members, and to protect themselves and the public against frauds and im positions. They were also to some extent charitable societies, and accumulated funds as such. The authority of the guilds was not strictly confined to the territorial limits of the town, but by custom was extended outside, in some cases for several miles; and they were permitted to seize and destroy fraudulent or defective goods, and to fine and imprison persons guilty of violating their regulations. No one was suffered to pursue an industrial calling, until he had been made free of the proper guild, and this he became entitled to by serving an apprenticeship and paying certain fees. The guilds gradually became wealthy and powerful, and their customs were so far modified that it was no longer essential to membership, that one should serve an apprenticeship, or follow any particular calling; but membership might be obtained by purchase, and it would also pass from father to son by descent. Distinguished lawyers and statesmen became members; an illustration of which we have in the case of Lord Chancellor Hatherley, who was a member of the guild of fishmongers. The following will give some idea of the government of these guilds. Each guild has a court of assistants, composed of a master warden, wardens and assistants, who are chosen from and by the liverymen. Neither the voters nor those whom they select for these offices are required to be residents of the city, but they are required to possess a property qualification within it. The guilds expend their accumulated funds at discretion, and they own expensive halls and are accustomed to give costly entertainments. By custom their members constitute the citizens of London, and the government of the city is therefore in their hands. The first charter of the city was granted by William the Conqueror, but it was a very simple instrument, and constituted little more than a recognition of an existing corporation. (a) From that time the corporate bounds have never been extended, except by the small addition of the ward of Bridge Without in the reign of Edward IV. The govern (a) See Stubbs, Const. Hist., ch. XI. ing body of the corporation is the Common Council. This is composed of 26 aldermen, chosen in as many wards, and 240 common councilmen. The aldermen are not only local legislators, but they are also judicial officers with limited powers. They are not required to reside within the city, and in 1876, there were aldermen residing in all parts of the United Kingdom from Stoke-uponTrent to Brighton, and not one of the aldermen had a city address, though the majority lived within the metropolis. The chief executive officer of the city is the mayor, who is chosen in common hall from the aldermen. He has the title of Lord Mayor, and is allowed within the city to assume regal pomp and ceremony. The city is only the nucleus of the vast metropolis of 4,000,000 people, which embraces parts of four counties, and includes the city of Westminster, and the parliamentary boroughs of Southwark, Finsbury, Marylebone and Tower Hamlets. The local government is consequently varied and without unity. The whole area is about 125 square miles. The common authority for the whole is a board of public works, chosen by the vestrymen. Besides this there are numerous local boards in separate districts for lighting and paving purposes, and there are also, as elsewhere, guardians, governors, and trustees of the poor. There is also a metropolitan police district, but this is much larger than the metropolis itself, being made to embrace so much of the surrounding territory as seems necessary to a complete and efficient system. The city proper is not included within this district, but has its own police. BOROUGHS. Up to 1835, the boroughs of England and Wales were without uniformity in history, organization and powers, and many of them were close corporations, with authority defined only by prescription. The local abuses were very great, and the corruptions notorious. These were remedied by the Municipal Corporations Act of that year, the purpose of which was to bring them all under one general system, with the control in the hands of the citizens in general. To that end the franchise was made uniform, and was based upon ratepaying residence within the borough or within seven miles of it. The government is now strictly representative, and any burgess is eligible to all offices. The governing body is the borough council, composed of the mayor, aldermen and councillors. The councillors are chosen by the burgesses by ballot, for a term of three years, and they choose the aldermen for a term of six years. They also choose the mayor. The mayor has judicial as well as executive powers, and there are also other local judges appointed by the Crown. The police force is under the control of a watch committee of the council. The franchise for local and for parliamentary purposes is not the same, and in local elections women are voters, if possessing the ratepaying qualification. The boroughs have authority to contract debts for ordinary local purposes, on obtaining the consent of the local government board mentioned below, or, in a few cases, of some other central authority; but for any other purposes, it would be necessary first to secure special legislation. It is also essential to have the assent of an absolute majority of the common council, and also of the ratepayers. It is customary, before the local government board or the legislature grants permission for contracting debts, to have special inquiry made into its necessity. All boroughs which are or have been the see of a bishop are called cities; (b) but their organization is the same with that of other boroughs. LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD. Since 1871, the central authority, which has had general supervision and control in matters of local government, has been the board with the above title. This board consists of a salaried president appointed by the crown, and the following ex officio members: The Lord President of the Council, the several Secretaries of State, the Lord Privy Seal, and the Chancellor of the Exchequer. The powers of this board are in part advisory, and in part compulsory, and vary with the subjects. One of the most important duties is to keep the local authorities from contracting unnecessary or burdensome debts, and when consent to indebtedness is given, it is only in connection with provisions for payment by annual instalments, or for setting apart an adequate sinking fund. This board also audits the accounts of the local boards, and may disallow such as are unauthorized or illegal, and charge the sums over to those who improperly incurred them. In poor law and sanitary matters the control of the board is very complete, and the supervision of the Rivers Pollution Acts, the Adulteration Acts, and the Vaccination Acts are specially committed to its superintendence. (b) 1 BL. Com., 114. THE BRITISH COLONIAL SYSTEM. In a note to the first book of these Commentaries (p. 109), the Colonia) System of Great Britain is spoken of as the grandest in extent and power the world has ever known. A more detailed account of the system, and of the countries and places embraced within it, than was given in the place referred to, will justify the statement there made, and at the same time will give us particulars of British Colonial government in all its varieties. In respect to government the British colonies and possessions are classified officially in three classes, as follows: First; Those properly denominated crown colonies, in which the crown has entire control of legislation, and the administration of whose affairs is carried on by officers under the control of the home government. In this class are: In Europe, Gibraltar, Heligoland, Malta, Cyprus. In America: Falkland Islands, Guiana, Honduras, Jamaica, and Turks Island. In Africa: Ascension, Gambia, Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, Lagos, St. Helena. In Asia: India, Aden and Perim, Hong Kong, Labuan, Straits Settlements. In Australasia: Fiji Islands, Rotumah. For each of these there is an executive officer, appointed by the crown, and removable at pleasure, and whose title of office is Governor, except as follows: For India it is Governor-General; for Honduras it is Lieutenant-Governor; for Jamaica it is Captain-General, and for Gambia, Gold Coast and Lagos it is Administrator. The population of each of these was as follows at the dates given: Cyprus (1871) 150,000; Gibraltar (1871) 14,764; Heligoland (1871) 1,913; Malta (1871) 149,084; Falkland Islands (1871) 803; Guiana (1871) 193,491; Honduras (1870) 24,710; Jamaica and Turks Island (1871) 510,354; Ascension (1871) 27; Gambia (1871) 14,790; Gold Coast (1871) 408,070; Sierra Leone (1881) 60,546; Lagos (1871) 62,021; St. Helena (1871) 6,241; India (1881) 252,541,210; Aden (1871) 22,507; Perim (1871) 211; Hong Kong (1876) 139,144; Labuan (1871) 4,898; Straits Settlements (1871) 308,097; Fiji Islands (1881) 124,999; Rotumah (1881) 2,500. Second; Those which have legislative bodies chosen by their own people, with a veto on legislation in the representative of the crown, and a general control of public officers in the home government. These are: In America: Bahamas, Bermudas, Leeward Islands, Windward Islands. In Africa: Natal. In Asia: Ceylon. In Australasia: Western Australia. Each of these has an executive appointed and removable by the crown, and whose title of office is governor. The population of these at the dates named was as follows: Bahamas (1871) 39,162; Bermudas (1871) 12,121; Leeward Islands (1871) 120,491; Windward Islands (1871) 284,078; Natal (1877) 325,512; Ceylon (1876) 2,459, 542; Western Australia (1881) 31,000. Third; Those which not only have legislatures of their own election, but whose governors, though appointed and removable by the crown, must reflect in their government and administration the sentiments of the legislature as ex- Responsible parliamentary government for these colonies began in Canada, and may be said to have originated with the Earl of Durham, who, as governor-general in the year 1831, in a report made to the home government, recommended as a remedy for the widespread and long-continued discontent in the extensive provinces of Lower and Upper Canada, that representative institutions, which should be "an image and transcript of the British constitution," should be allowed to the people. In accordance with this recommendation, Mr. Poulette Thomson, the successor to the Earl of Durham, was directed to introduce a government which should be responsible to the representatives of the people, and the principal officers of which, constituting the governor's advisers, should possess the confidence of the legislature, and be subject to removal from office whenever any sufficient motives of public policy should suggest the expediency. Accordingly, this official, on his arrival in Canada, made public announcement that henceforth its government should be conducted in accordance with the wishes of the people as expressed by their representatives. The understanding which was had of this announcement, and which has ever since been acted upon, is tersely expressed in three resolutions adopted by the Legislative Assembly of Canada, in the year 1841, and which are as follows: "1. That the head of the executive government of the province, being, within the limits of his government, the representative of the sovereign, is responsible to the imperial authority alone; but that nevertheless the manage. ment of our local affairs can only be conducted by him, by and with the assistance, counsel and information of subordinate officers in the province. "2. That in order to preserve between the different branches of the provincial parliament that harmony which is essential to the peace, welfare, and good government of the province, the chief advisers of the representative of the sovereign, constituting a provincial administration under him, ought to be men possessed of the confidence of the representatives of the people; thus affording a guarantee that the well understood wishes and interests of the people, which our gracious sovereign has declared shall be the rule of the provincial government, will, on all occasions, be faithfully represented and advocated. "3. That the people of this province have, moreover, a right to expect from such provincial administration the exertion of their best endeavors that the |