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self becomes a mere tradesman, and makes his school a mere machine shop.

3. The Third Resource is authoritative instruction in methods and devices. At present, the real opposition is not between native skill and experience on the one side, and psychological methods on the other; it is rather between devices picked up no one knows how, methods inherited from a crude past, or else invented, ad hoc, by educational quackery—and methods which can be rationally justified-devices which are the natural fruit of knowing the mind's powers and the ways in which it works and grows in assimilating its proper nutriment. The mere fact that there are so many methods current, and constantly pressed upon the teacher as the acme of the educational experience of the past, or as the latest and best discovery in pedagogy, makes an absolute demand for some standard by which they may be tested. Only knowledge of the principles upon which all methods are based can free the teacher from dependence upon the educational nostrums which are recommended like patent medicines, as panaceas for all educational ills. If a teacher is one fairly initiated into the real workings of the mind, if he realizes its normal aims and methods, false devices and schemes can have no attraction for him; he will not swallow them "as silly people swallow empirics' pills "; he will reject them as if by instinct. All new suggestions, new methods, he will submit to the infallible test of science; and those which will further his work he can adopt and rationally apply, seeing clearly their place and bearings, and the conditions under which they can be most effectively employed. The difference be

tween being overpowered and used by machinery and being able to use the machinery is precisely the difference between methods externally inculcated and methods freely adopted, because of insight into the psychological principles from which they spring.

Summing up, we may say that the teacher requires a sound knowledge of ethical and psychological principles-first, because such knowledge, besides its indirect value as forming logical habits of mind, is necessary to secure the full use of native skill; secondly, because it is necessary in order to attain a perfected experience with the least expenditure of time and energy; and thirdly, in order that the educator may not be at the mercy of every sort of doctrine and device, but may have his own standard by which to test the many methods and expedients constantly urged upon him, selecting those which stand the test and rejecting those which do not, no matter by what authority or influence they may be supported.

II. We may now consider more positively how psychology is to perform this function of developing and directing native skill, making experience rational and hence prolific of the best results, and providing a criterion for suggested devices.

Education has two main phases which are never separated from each other, but which it is convenient to distinguish. One is concerned with the organization and workings of the school as part of an organic whole; the other, with the adaptation of this school structure to the individual pupil. This difference may be illustrated by the difference in the attitude of the school board or minister of education or superintendent, whether

state, county, or local, to the school, and that of the individual teacher within the school. The former (the administrators of an organized system) are concerned more with the constitution of the school as a whole; their survey takes in a wide field, extending in some cases from the kindergarten to the university throughout an entire country, in other cases from the primary school to the high or academic school in a given town or city. Their chief business is with the organization and management of the school, or system of schools, upon certain general principles. What shall be the end and means of the entire institution? What subjects shall be studied? At what stage shall they be introduced, and in what sequence shall they follow one another—that is, what shall be the arrangement of the school as to its various parts in time? Again, what shall be the correlation of studies and methods at every period? Shall they be taught as different subjects? in departments? or shall methods be sought which shall work them into an organic whole? All this lies, in a large measure, outside the purview of the individual teacher; once within the institution he finds its purpose, its general lines of work, its constitutional structure, as it were, fixed for him. An individual may choose to live in France, or Great Britain, or the United States, or Canada; but after he has made his choice, the general conditions under which he shall exercise his citizenship are decided for him. So it is, in the main, with the individual teacher.

But the citizen who lives within a given system of institutions and laws finds himself constantly called upon to act. He must adjust his interests and activities to

those of others in the same country. There is, at the same time, scope for purely individual selection and application of means to ends, for unfettered action of strong personality, as well as opportunity and stimulus for the free play and realization of individual equipment and acquisition. The better the constitution, the system which he can not directly control, the wider and freer and more potent will be this sphere of individual action. Now, the individual teacher finds his duties within the school as an entire institution; he has to adapt this organism, the subjects taught, the modes of discipline, etc., to the individual pupil. Apart from this personal adaptation on the part of the individual teacher, and the personal assimilation on the part of the individual pupil, the general arrangement of the school is purely meaningless; it has its object and its justification in this individual realm. Geography, arithmetic, literature, etc., may be provided in the curriculum, and their order, both of sequence and coexistence, laid down; but this is all dead and formal until it comes to the intelligence and character of the individual pupil, and the individual teacher is the medium through which it comes.

Now, the bearing of this upon the point in hand is that psychology and ethics have to subserve these two functions. These functions, as already intimated, can not be separated from each other; they are simply the general and the individual aspects of school life; but for purposes of study, it is convenient and even important to distinguish them. We may consider psychology and ethics from the standpoint of the light they throw upon the organization of the school as a whole-its end,

its chief methods, the order and correlation of studiesand we may consider them from the standpoint of the service they can perform for the individual teacher in qualifying him to use the prescribed studies and methods intelligently and efficiently, the insight they can give him into the workings of the individual mind, and the relation of any given subject to that mind.

Next to positive doctrinal error within the pedagogy itself, it may be said that the chief reason why so much of current pedagogy has been either practically useless or even practically harmful is the failure to distinguish these two functions of psychology. Considerations, principles, and maxims that derive their meaning, so far as they have any meaning, from their reference to the organization of the whole institution, have been presented as if somehow the individual teacher might derive from them specific information and direction as to how to teach particular subjects to particular pupils ; on the other hand, methods that have their value (if any) as simple suggestions to the individual teacher as to how to accomplish temporary ends at a particular time have been presented as if they were eternal and universal laws of educational polity. As a result the teacher is confused; he finds himself expected to draw particular practical conclusions from very vague and theoretical educational maxims (e. g., proceed from the whole to the part, from the concrete to the abstract), or he finds himself expected to adopt as rational principles what are mere temporary expedients. It is, indeed, advisable that the teacher should understand, and even be able to criticise, the general principles upon which the whole educational system is formed and administered.

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