1621, Rinteln; dissolved in 1809. 1765, Kasan. 1623, Salzburg. 1625, Mantua. 1632, Osnabruck. 1632, Dorpat. 1765, Milan. 1765, Sassari (1558). 1769, Nancy. Louis XV. of France. 1773, Genoa (school of law, medicine, 1513) 1635, Munster; transferred to Rome in 1818. 1777, Pesth. 1635, Tyrnau. (See 1469, Offen.) 1636, Utrecht. 1636, Linz. 1638, Bamberg. 1778, Osma. 1781, Lemburg. 1802, Landshut; tr. to Munich in 1826. 1803, Moscow. 1640, Abo; transferred to Helsingfors 1827. 1803, Wilna. 1654, Herborn. 1655, Duisberg. 1655, Durham. 1804, Karkov. 1805, Kasan. 1308, University of France. 1811, Christiania. 1815, Bucharest. 1816, Licge. 1816, Ghent. 1816, Warsaw. 1818, Bonn. 1819, St. Petersburg. 1823, Corfu. (Ionian Islands). 1826, Munich. (See 1802, Landshut.) 1833, Durham, 1837. 1834, Berne. 1834, Brussels. 1836, University of London. 1837, Athens. The above list contains the names of several institutions clothed with the privileges of a university (Studium Generale) which never attained a high or permanent reputation for superior instruction, and as little deserve the designation, as do the great mass of our American colleges and universities, so-called in their charters, to be ranked among the highest schools of national culture. Although many of the faculties of the present university organization of France are located at the seats of the old universities closed in 1790, the above list does not include all the places where, at least, these faculties are now located. According to this list the different States of Europe, recognizing as such several now united, established the university as follows: 1. Italy in the year 1100, (Solerno and Bologna). 2. France in the year 1180, (Paris). 3. England in the year 1201, (Oxford). 4. Spain in the year 1222, (Salamanca). 5. Portugal in the year 1279, (Coimbra). 6. Austria in the year 1848, (Prague). 7. Switzerland in the year 1368, (Geneva). 8. Germany in the year 1386, (Heidelberg). 9. Scotland in the year 1411, (Saint Andrews). 10. Belgium in the year 1425, (Louvain). 11. Hungary in the year 1465, (Buda), 12. Sweden in the year 1477, (Upsala). 13. Denmark in the year 1479, (Copenhagen). 14. Poland in the year 1570, (Wilna). 15. Holland in the year 1575, (Leyden). 16. Ireland in the year 1591, (Trinity College, Dublin). 17. Finland in the year 1640, (Abo). 18. Russia in the year 1755, (Moscow). 19. Norway in the year 1811, (Christiania). 20. Roumania in the year 1814, (Jassy.) 21. Greece in the year 1837, (Athens). 1 A list of institutions of Superior Instruction in each county now in operation in each country, will be given further on. THE UNIVERSITY OF BOOKS, AFFAIRS, AND LIVING TEACHERS. THE UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS. WHAT IS A UNIVERSITY? IF I were asked to describe, as briefly and popularly as I could, what a University was, I should draw my answer from its ancient designation of a Studium Generale, or School of Universal Learning." This description implies the assemblage of strangers from all parts in one spot from all parts; el, how will you find professors and students for every department of knowledge? and in one spot; else, how can there be any school at all? Accordingly, in its simple and rudimental form, it is a school of knowledge of every kind, consisting of teachers and learners from every quarter. Many things are requisite to complete and satisfy the idea embodied in this description; but such as this a University seems to be in its essence, a place for the communication and circulation of thought, by means of personal intercourse, through a wide extent of country. Mutual Education; the Press and Voice. Mutual education, in a large sense of the word, is one of the great and incessant occupations of human society, carried on partly with set purpose, and partly not. One generation forms another; and the existing generation is ever acting and reacting upon itself in the persons of its individual members. Now, in this process, books, I need scarcely say, that is, the litera scripta, are one special instrument. It is true; and emphatically so in this age. Considering the prodigious powers of the press, and how they are developed at this time in the never-intermitting issue of periodicals, tracts, pamphlets, works in series, and light literature, we must allow there never was a time which promised fairer for dispensing with every other means of information and instruction. What can we want more, you will say, for the intellectual education of the whole man, and for every man, than so exuberant and diversified and persistent a promulgation of all kinds of knowledge? Why, you will ask, need we go up to knowledge, when knowledge comes down to us? The Sibyl wrote her prophecies upon the leaves of the forest, and wasted them; but here such careless profusion might be prudently indulged, for it can be afforded without loss, in consequence of the almost fabulous fe * From Dr. Newman's Rise and Progress of Universities, first published in 1854, in successive numbers of the Dublin "Catholic University Gazette," and collected in a volume, 1856, under the title of Office and Work of Universities, and in 1872 issued with other treatises, under the title of Historical Sketches. By John Henry Newman, of the Oratory. London: Basil Montagu Pickering, 196 Piccadilly. 421 pages. cundity of the instrument which these latter ages have invented. We have sermons in stones, and books in the running brooks; works larger and more comprehensive than those which have gained for ancients an immortality, issue forth every morning, and are projected onwards to the ends of the earth at the rate of hundreds of miles a day. Our seats are strewed, our pavements are powdered, with swarms of little tracts; and the very bricks of our city walls preach wisdom, by informing us where we can cheaply purchase it. I allow all this, and much more; such certainly is our popular education, and its effects are remarkable. Nevertheless, after all, even in this age, whenever men are really serious about getting what, in the language of trade, is called "a good article," when they aim at something precise, something refined, something really luminous, something really large, something choice, they go to another market; they avail themselves, in some shape or other, of the rival method, the ancient method, of oral instruction, of present communication between man and man, of teachers instead of learning, of the personal influence of a master, and the humble initiation of a disciple, and, in consequence, of great centers of pilgrimage and throng, which such a method of education necessarily involves. This, I think, will be found to hold good in all those departments or aspects of society which possess an interest sufficient to bind men together, or to constitute what is called "a world." It holds in the political world, and in the high world, and in the religious world; and it holds also in the literary and scientific world. If the actions of men may be taken as any test of their convictions, then we have reason for saying this, viz. :-that the province and the inestimable benefit of the litera scripta is that of being a record of truth and an authority of appeal, and an instrument of teaching in the hands of a teacher; but that, if we wish to become exact and fully furnished in any branch of knowledge which is diversified and complicated, we must consult the living man and listen to his living voice. I am not bound to investigate the cause of this; and anything I may say will, I am conscious, be short of its full analysis; perhaps we may suggest, that no books can get through the number of minute questions which it is possible to ask on any extended subject, or can hit upon the very difficulties which are severally felt by each reader in succession. Or again, that no book can convey the special spirit and delicate peculiarities of its subject with that rapidity and certainty which attend on the sympathy of mind with mind, through the eyes, the look, the accent, and the manner, in casual expressions thrown off at the moment, and the unstudied turns of familiar conversation. But I am already dwelling too long on what is but an incidental portion of my main subject. Whatever be the cause, the fact is undeniable. The general principles of any study you may learn by books at home; but the detail, the color, the tone, the air, the life which makes it live in us, you must catch all these from those in whom it lives already. You must imitate the student in French or German, who is not content with his grammar, but goes to Paris or Dresden: you must take example from the young artist who aspires to visit the great masters in Florence and in Rome. Till we have discovered some intellectual daguerreotype, which takes off the course of thought, and the form, lineaments, and features of truth, as completely and minutely as the optical instrument reproduces the sensible object, we must come to the teachers of wisdom to learn wisdom; we must repair to the fountain and drink there. Portions of it may go from thence to the ends of the earth by means of books; but the fulness is in one place alone. It is in such assemblages and congregations of intellect that books themselves, the master-pieces of human genius, are at least originated. The School of Manners. For instance: the polished manners and high-bred bearing which are so difficult of attainment, and so strictly personal when attained, which are so much admired in society, from society are acquired. All that goes to constitute a gentleman,-the carriage, gait, address, gestures, voice; the ease, the self-possession, the courtesy, the power of conversing, the talent of not offending; the lofty principle, the delicacy of thought, the happiness of expression, the taste and propriety, the generosity and forbearance, the candor and consideration, the openness of hand-these qualities, some of them come by nature, some of them may be found in any rank, some of them are a direct precept of Christianity; but the full assemblage of them, bound up in the unity of an individual character, do we expect they can be learned from books? are they not necessarily acquired, where they are to be found, in high society? The very nature of the case leads us to say so; you cannot fence without an antagonist, nor challenge all comers in disputation before you have supported a thesis ; and in like manner, it stands to reason, you cannot learn to converse till you have the world to converse with; you cannot unlearn your natural bashfulness, or awkwardness, or stiffness, or other besetting deformity, till you serve your time in some school of manners. Well, and is it not so in matter of fact? The metropolis, the court, the great houses of the land, are the centers to which at stated times the country comes up, as to shrines of refinement and good taste; and then in due time the country goes back again home, enriched with a portion of the social accomplishments, which those very visits serve to call out and heighten in the gracious dispensers of them. The School of Statesmanship. I admit I have not been in Parliament, any more than I have figured in the beau monde; yet I cannot but think that statesmanship, as well as high breeding, is learned, not by books, but in certain centers of education. If it be not presumption to say so, Parliament puts a clever man au courant with politics and affairs of state in a way surprising to himself. A member of the Legislature, if tolerably observant, begins to see things with new eyes, even though his views undergo no change. Words have a meaning now, and ideas a reality such as they had not before. He hears a vast deal in public speeches and private conversation, which is never put into print. The bearings of measures and events, the action of parties, and the persons of friends and enemies, are brought out to the man who is in the midst of them with a distinctness which the most diligent perusal of newspapers will fail to impart to them. It is access to the fountain-heads of political wisdom and experience, it is daily intercourse, of one kind or another, with the multitude who go up to them, it is familiarity with business, it is access to the contributions of fact and opinion thrown together by many witnesses from many quarters, which does this for him. However, I need not account for a fact, to which it is sufficient to appeal; that the Houses of Parliament and the atmosphere around them are a University of politics. The School of Science. As regards the world of science, we find a remarkable instance of the principle which I am illustrating, in the periodical meetings for its advance, which have arisen in the course of the last twenty years, such as the British Association. Such gatherings would to many persons appear at first sight simply preposterous. Above all subjects of study, Science is conveyed, is propagated, by books or by private teaching; experiments and investigations are conducted in silence; discoveries are made in solitude. What have philosophers to do with festive celebrities, and panegyrical solemnities with mathematical and physical truth? Yet on a closer attention to the subject, it is found that not even scientific thought can dispense with the suggestions, the instruction, the stimulus, the sympathy, the intercourse with mankind on a large scale, which such meetings secure. A fine time of year is chosen, when days are long, skies are bright, the earth smiles, and all nature rejoices; a city or town is taken by |