to cherish the interest of literature and the sciences and all seminaries of them, especially the University of Cambridge, public schools and grammar schools in the towns; to encourage private societies and public institutions, by rewards and immunities for the promotion of agriculture, arts, sciences, commerce, trades, manufactures, and a natural history of the country; to countenance and inculcate the principles of humanity, and general benevolence public and private, charity, industry, and frugality, honesty and punctuality in all their dealings; sincerity, good humour, and all social affections and generous sentiments among the people."

An amendment to the Constitution adopted in 1855, declares that no public money shall be used for sectarian schools.

The later history of education in Massachusetts during the eighteenth and part of the nineteenth century is full of interest, especially the part relating to the work of Horace Mann, between 1837 and 1850, in building up a centralized system, and in introducing normal schools. In recognition of his work, and of the importance of education to the Commonwealth, his statue is one of two standing on the steps of the historic Boston State House. It would be, however, beyond the limits of the present subject to enter into the details of the evolution of the existing system. It is our business rather to describe the system as it stands, noticing especially the parts relating to secondary education.

The great merit of the Massachusetts organization is its combination of local self-government and cen

1 See Boone, Education in the United States, p. 103. G. H. Martin, Brief Historical Sketch of the Mass. Public School System, Boston, 1893.

tralized control. The first principle acts through the township system; the second through the State Board of Education. Subject to the provisions of the general school law, details of which are given later, the Towns (townships), the lineal descendants of the primitive Teutonic communities, provide the schools and govern them by means of a school committee, elected in a town meeting, one-third being chosen every year. Their powers and duties are as follows:

"The school committee has the general charge and superintendence of all the public schools of a city or town. It establishes courses of study, selects text books, directs how schools shall be organized, how many schools shall be kept, what shall be the qualification for admission to the schools, the age at which children may enter, and the age to which they may continue; and has power to regulate the system of classification and distribution of pupils. It selects and contracts with the teachers of the public schools, ascertains by examination and otherwise their qualifications for teaching, and their capacity for the government of schools; and issues certificates of character and acquirements. It dismisses teachers with or without cause stated."1

The members receive payment for the time they actually give to school work.

There are 352 Towns (townships), including 28 cities, and varying from wealthy suburban communities like Brookline, to poor and lonely mountain or sea-coast districts, where the means of the population are inadequate to provide good schools. without external aid. Each Town is independent, and might vary considerably from its neighbours.

1 Official Abstract, Chicago Exhibition.

But the Massachusetts State law is so detailed, there are so many provisions to induce the Towns to conform to the best methods in education, that, as a matter of fact, there is a high degree of uniformity, This is largely the work of the State Board of Education established in 1837; it is remarkable as having little direct control, its functions being chiefly advisory. But its work has nevertheless been of the greatest value in perfecting and developing the Massachusetts system,1 and American educators speak highly of it. It consists of eight members (each holding office for eight years), appointed by the Governor, and of the Governor and Lieutenant-Governor, ex officio. Among the number of those who have served on the Board are, to quote names well-known in England, Horace Mann, Phillips Brooks, Thomas Wentworth Higginson, and Francis A. Walker. The existing Board includes two women, one being the late head of Wellesley College, Mrs. Alice Freeman Palmer. Such a Board is entirely detached from politics; this quality is, according to Americans themselves, a rare virtue in a public body. The members serve without any payment.

The Board has "the general management of all the normal schools of the State, and directs and supervises the education of the deaf, the blind, and the feeble-minded, that are educated at the expense of the State." It prescribes the form of registers to be kept in the schools, and through its Secretary,

1 Mass. Board of Education Report.

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a paid official, collects statistical and other information (the law requires private schools to furnish returns according to a specified form), and diffuses it through the Commonwealth.

The Board presents annually to the Legislature a Report,"containing a printed abstract of the said returns (from the schools), a detailed report of all the doings of the Board, with such observations upon the condition and efficiency of the system of popular education, and such suggestions as to the most practical means of improving and extending it, as the experience and reflection of the Board dictate." This has influenced the course of legislation.

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The Board also holds in trust the State fund for educational purposes, arising in great part from the sale of public lands. The income from this is divided into two parts; one moiety supports the normal schools, pays the expenses of the Board, salary of Secretary, etc., the surplus, if any, going to the capital account. The other half is divided by the Board among the poorer Towns, according to certain regulations. This arrangement is obviously one of very great importance, tending as it does to enable poor districts to support such schools as their own unaided efforts would never enable them to enjoy.

The Secretary and Treasurer of the Board act as commissioners to invest and manage the fund. Only Towns whose valuation is below a certain

1 Official Abstract, Chicago Exhibition.

amount are eligible to receive aid from the State fund. They must also comply with all the laws as to keeping schools open for a certain number of weeks in the year, etc., etc., and must raise by taxation at least a sum of $3 (12s.), per person between 5 and 15 years of age, in the district, for current school expenses. It is thus seen that the State aid is meant to encourage local effort, and not to supersede it.

Another arrangement has lately come into force to encourage small and poor Towns and cities to unite to pay for a Superintendent, who shall supervise the schools, instead of having the work done by the school committees, who do not, as a rule, consist of persons specially skilled in education. If the Towns concerned vote in town-meeting to adopt the provisions of the new law, form a union, and raise jointly $750 (£150), as salary for a superintendent, the Commonwealth will then grant from the State treasury a warrant for $1250 (£250), of which $750 (£150) shall go to the salary of the superintendent, and the rest to the increase of the teachers' salaries. This provision has been largely adopted, 121 Towns having united for the purpose of supervision. The employment of skilled superintendence is considered by American educators to be one of the most useful methods of improving the schools of a district. In the whole State 350 cities and Towns have skilled supervision of schools, employing 135 superintendents.

The work of the Secretary of the Board of Education is so important a part of the action for good

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