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in the elementary schools, i.e., of the cultivation of power rather than knowledge on the part of the child. With it may be connected the interest in the principles of Herbart, and the work that has been done in applying these. This takes the form of the "concentration" plan: one or two subjects are taken as the main object of attention, and everything else is related to them. This matter is worthy of further study by English educators.

We can at present only allude to this dawning renaissance. Such a realization of the ideals of the masters Froebel, Pestalozzi, and Herbart, is a sure sign of a great future, when, it may be, in a new land free from the traditions and superstitions of the old, in an atmosphere of freedom and equality, shall be developed a truly scientific system of educational practice, based on the study of child nature, and inspired by the enthusiasm for humanity.

THE

ORGANIZATION

A.-General Outlines

HE Public School system in the United States is universally a system of local control. The National Government has nothing whatever to do with education. Its powers are, in general, limited to those expressly given to it by the constitution, and education is not included in these.1

There are two institutions in Washington of an educational character, depending on the National Government. They are the Bureau of Education and the Smithsonian Institute. The former collects and diffuses information. The latter somewhat resembles the English Royal Society. The National Government also controls the Military School at West Point and the Naval School at Annapolis.

The States of the Union are for many purposes separate commonwealths; each has its own separate school law. This law has two sources: first, the State Constitution, which is enacted directly by the whole people of the State voting at the polls; and second, the Acts passed by the Legislature. We give below 2 a clause from the Constitution of

1

Bryce, chap. iv. pp. 30-31. 2 Infra, p. 28.

Massachusetts.1 As other examples we may quote the Constitution of Ohio, of 1802, which declares: Schools, and the means of instruction, shall for ever be encouraged by legislative provision." The Constitution of Michigan, of 1850, devotes a long article to education, ordaining that a system of schools shall be established all over the State, and providing for the government of the State University. Such constitutional provisions are general in their purport. The Acts of the State Legislature are more detailed in character, providing for the organization of local boards, fixing the school age, making education compulsory, etc. In the next section will be found some account of the School Law of Massachusetts, which has special enactments respecting High Schools.

Subject to the provisions of the school law, the schools are controlled by what would be termed in England the School Board of each district. The Boards are elected locally, levy a local rate, build schools, arrange courses of study, appoint and dismiss teachers, etc. As a rule women are eligible as members, and have the school franchise. The members are, we believe, generally paid for the time actually spent by them on school business. In consequence of the diversity of the methods

1 "The true relation of general government to public education throughout the country is not one of dictation or direction of it-not one of interference in any manner with the State and township management—but it should be one of aid encouragement to the educational organizations already established in the several States."-W. T. HARRIS.

of local government in the different States, it is extremely difficult to make any general statement about these Boards.

Some States have School Districts, small administrative areas, used only for this purpose. This system does not work well, and the tendency is to abolish it.1 In New England, the townships are in general the units of school organization, and the township system is being adopted in the West. All the States of the Union are divided into counties; these appear in the school organization in many States, especially in the South. There is often a county superintendent, and sometimes a county school tax.

A city,—and this term includes many centres of population that we should call villages,-forms a district in itself, having its own City School Board. These Boards are not always elected directly by the people, but may be appointed by the mayor, or in some other way. In Chicago for instance the Mayor appoints, and the City Council confirm his nomination. Some of the great cities have small local bodies in each ward, who also take part in the government of the schools. This is the case in Philadelphia, where the system acts very badly. Local Boards as a rule carry on their work by means

1

Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, State of Minnesota, p. 20.

Only one woman sits on this Board at present. The Mayor endeavoured to appoint another, but the City Council refused confirmation, because, it is said, a woman has no political influence.

of committees,-one on High Schools, one on Finance, one on Buildings, etc. American educators are not altogether satisfied with this system of local government of public schools; it introduces "politics," the bane of American local government,1 into the management of the schools, and thus lowers their efficiency. To this evil influence is attributed the inferiority of the public schools in some of the great cities. Local Boards are often also ignorant, narrow-minded, and parsimonious, especially in the poorer rural districts. American feeling is however so strongly in favour of local government, that no great change is likely to be made. Educators rather seek to improve the school law, which in the more enlightened States is extremely minute, and to strengthen the power and influence of the State Boards of Education, which have been established in many States. These Boards have no power of compulsion over the local bodies; there is, however, often a State school fund which they dispense; they can thus ensure the school law being carried out locally. They collect and diffuse information, and report to the Legislature.

All the States except Delaware have a State Superintendent of Public Instruction, who gives advice, hears appeals, makes reports, licenses teachers, etc. In some States he also has the power of dispensing

1

Bryce, chaps. li. and lii. See also City School Systems in the United States, page 15, and the speech of G. W. Curtis, before the National Educational Association, 1891.

"Articles in Forum, by Dr. Rice, October to June, 1892-3,

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