In the days of our forefathers, lighting problems were very simple; the tallow candle or the whale oil lamp furnished all the light considered necessary, and in many cases the newspaper or books of those days were read by the light from the fireplace. That the percentage of eye troubles was less than at present is probably due to the fact that one could not read for any great length of time by those methods, reading matter was not as common then as now, and people usually retired shortly after dark. At the present time there is no limit to the kinds of magazines and papers possible to obtain at any newsstand, and the polish is such that most of their pages could almost be used as a reflector in a projector lantern.

There is no question that the eye has become accustomed to light received obliquely from above. This, I believe, is one of the reasons the eye is affronted by light, harsh or strong, coming too brightly from any other direction. The need of giving serious thought to the lighting of the home from a hygienic standpoint is at once apparent, because the faculty of sight is of supreme importance. The aim should be not only to have the necessary light to hold the eye to its regular work, but also give the eye its normal amount of vision. Eyesight declines with passing years, and illumination in the home must be of such a character as not to increase this disadvantage.

The old rule that light for reading should come obliquely over the left shoulder, well hints that direct rays should be kept out of the eye. In lighting a room for reading or for work that is prolonged, it is always desirable to avoid too strong shadows, and glare either direct or reflected, while not doing away with shadows altogether.

ARTISTIC ASPECTS

The present-day lighting service requirements in the small residences, in the homes of the middle class, is low cost and utility. In the larger residences, the homes of the rich, the selection of fixtures may be governed almost entirely by artistic considerations. Here the words science and art may be synonymous, and there arises the opportunity for the illuminating engineer to combine the two in the production of devices for agreeable and pleasing effects.

It is desirable that all illumination when possible, shall be æsthetically correct. When one considers that the quantity or quality of light, or type of fixture adds or detracts from the

arrangements and the decorative appeal of a room, one recognizes the necessity of giving these much thought. The purpose for which the room is to be used and its character must receive consideration. In the large residence, in many instances, only an artist can do justice so far as fixtures are concerned.

One of the blessings of to-day is that lighting auxiliaries are more artistically designed than heretofore, and there is not left, therefore, much excuse for inartistic lighting equipment.

In these days of period furnishings great care should be taken in the selection of fixtures. There are many cases when efficiency must be sacrificed in order to permit the use of a fixture absolutely in harmony with the surroundings and the period. For example, .. in a large parlor of the Louis IV period, with its gold furniture with light coverings, delicate hangings at the windows, and other decorations in keeping with the times, imagine how a shower, a semiindirect, a true indirect, or a Colonial fixture would look! A room of this type demands a chandelier of the time with its cut-glass, and if the client really has the courage of his convictions, he may equip it with real candles; but if he has not quite reached this point, the candles can be replaced by the candle lamps which probably will be cleaner and cause less trouble.

Occasionally a dining room is furnished in early English style with the carved table the old court cupboard and the Jacobean sideboard and chairs, the setting being provided by a spacious room with patterned ceiling and oak-paneled walls. In a room of that character the ordinary stock fixture would be out of the question, and one would make use of a more ornate chandelier, multiple wall brackets and candelabra lamps.

One of the first things to understand even from the briefest study of period furnishings is that all furniture and all kinds of decoration that have come down to us weighted with historic tradition, were evolved as a natural result of certain conditions of life; hence the various types that were commonly used together, will always look well when brought together.

It is of very great importance to study the lighting problem from every angle, and if necessary to arrive at the conclusions in the selection of fixtures by the process of elimination. In no case should one upon entering a room immediately decide upon a certain type of fixture simply because he recently saw one at a fixture house that impressed him.

Artistic aspects and beauty in a room, are a matter of harmonious

relationships, and good taste in illumination demands a correct association of fixture and of light, with the proper background setting.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

The lighting service representative in search of the residence class of business has probably the best opportunity to start the client on the right track, because he is usually the one to come in contact with him first, and it is needless to say that he should possess a comprehensive knwledge of the subject of home lighting.

He should, of course, be familiar with the different sizes of lamps, candle-powers, wattages, cost of operation, and should possess other practical information. It is obvious that should he be possessed of technical knowledge, his value to his company might be increased; but the salesman's scientific knowledge is usually limited and perhaps fortunately so, for a technically trained man is seldom a clever salesman.

Not infrequently when a customer equips his house initially with the most efficient types of lamps, replaces the burnt-out ones with old carbon lamps, the change comes so gradually that it is scarcely noticed until the bills show nearly double as much energy used as previously, and the result is a complaint.

Another factor which enters surprisingly into the economical use of lighting is proper and convenient switching. For instance, if the entrance hall lamp is not controlled from the second floor as well as from the first, it may be left in service much longer than is necessary because some one on the way up stairs may have forgotten to turn it off, and is too lazy to retrace his steps.

Another method of wasting energy is that of the careless or neglectful person who goes down cellar to "fix the furnace" and allows the cellar lamp to remain in service all night. To obviate this condition a pilot lamp could be installed over the cellar door where it would prove as useful as one for a flatiron or a range.

Another cause of high bills is misplaced outlets. I have seen outlets so badly located that it was necessary to produce approximately 10 foot-candles in one end of a room in order to obtain the necessary 2 foot-candles at the other. Obviously, the lamps should be so placed as to produce light where it will be most used, thus not only adding to the pleasing effect of the illumination, but reducing the cost of lighting. Such matters are entirely under the control of the builder and contractor. When we realize how limited the appropriations

are for wiring some of the smaller houses, we wonder how they provide as much as they do. This remark applies principally to the "ready built" houses, where financial gain is the only thing thought of. It is unfortunate that this evil exists, but at present there seems to be no remedy.

Globes or shades, the indispensable adjuncts to the lighting fixture, are made in all shapes and sizes and of all colors of the rainbow. Some are so thin that they are of scarcely any help in concealing the lamp filament, and others are so dense that barely any perceptible amount of light can be obtained through them; both of these extremes are to be avoided. The kind of glass selected should be given considerable thought, as glass absorbs, transmits and reflects.

The safest way of protecting one's self against bad fixtures is to reduce the fixture appropriation to a point that will insure simplicity. The worst fixtures to be seen are the gaudy ones of medium price, where an effort has been made to obtain a highly decorative effect without the skill in design and finish in execution really necessary for good results.

The difference in cost of installation and fixtures between good or bad never is so wide that the builder would not select the good if he realized the evils of the bad. Houses sell more readily when they contain practical and artistic electrical equipment.

COÖPERATION

A realization of the importance of illuminating engineering in the vast fields which are opening to us have demonstrated the desirability for the coöperation of the illuminating engineer with the architect and the decorator. A new profession, without doubt, is in the process of development. My architectural friends inform me that they are depending on illuminating engineers more and more every day for knowledge and aid. It is a fact that illuminants and new devices with their intricate details are being developed so rapidly that even those who make special studies of them can hardly keep pace. Granting this statement to be true, I fail to see how the architect or decorator can afford to spend as much time on illuminating problems as necessary, without doing so at the expense of his profession. It is, therefore, advisable for the architect and the lighting expert to work together to obtain the results for which both are striving.

The engineer should be consulted where architectural changes are

contemplated, or where special lighting is wanted to emphasize architectural effects, and the architect has an equal right to be advised of anything that concerns the house he has designed. We have fewer occasions to consult with the decorator, but the same conditions apply.

LIVING ROOMS

In providing the lighting for the living room, consideration must be given to the fact that of all the rooms this one is most used by the average family; as this room is utilized for many purposes, a somewhat elastic lighting scheme should be arranged. In addition to being the library of the home, it is often used for social affairs, such as card playing, and dancing, and at other times one or more members of the family and their friends simply desire to lounge about and converse. In most cases, more time is spent in reading than at anything else, and it will at once be seen that good lighting is a very necessary source of comfort and one to which the utmost consideration should be given. There are a number of ways of providing

light suitable for reading.

One way would be to illuminate the room so brightly that one could see to read in any part of it, but this method would prove very costly and consequently out of the question in the majority of rooms, and certainly would not be considered artistic.

Often selection is made of a portable lamp fitted with an opaque reflector that will throw the light on the reading matter, but this type of lamp, while admirable for reading, is of so little service in the general lighting of a room that it cannot, or should not, be considered seriously in the scheme of general illumination,

Some people attempt to obtain light for reading from the chandelier above by directing the rays downward, or by attaching a short extension cord to the fixture and equipping the lamp with a prismatic or even an opaque shade. This scheme is satisfactory for the reader, providing the pages are turned at such an angle that he does not receive the glare from the paper, but it is a makeshift arrangement, unsightly, and should not be encouraged.

Often in homes where electricity is employed for lighting use is made of a kerosene lamp, commonly called a "student's lamp" for reading, not really as a matter of economy, but to do away with the supposed eye-tiring, uncomfortable glare from the incandescent lamp, which bad reputation comes from the use of a too brilliant lamp unsuitably placed. One can quite readily duplicate the