infringe on popular rights, saying, on Dec. 6, that "the poniard that sought the King's life must not reach liberty, of which the King is the most loyal and faithful defender." On Dec. 11 a motion of confidence in the domestic policy of the Government was lost by 257 votes against 183, and the ministers resigned. Six months later Cairoli was again called upon to take the direction of affairs from the hands of Depretis, but in November, 1879, he was compelled to modify his programme and receive Signor Depretis into his Cabinet as Minister of the Interior. The French treaty with Tunis caused a reaction against his foreign policy that bereft him henceforward of all political influence. The ministry resigned on May 14, 1881. For a time, with his faithful followers of the Extreme Left, he took part in the discussion of public works, withdrawing gradually from political life. Cairoli was one of the most unbending adversaries of the Vatican, yet even the clerical journals united with the rest of the Italian press in paying tribute to his lofty character.

Cambridge, Princess AUGUSTA WILHELMINA LOUISA, Duchess of, born July 25, 1797; died in London, England, April 6, 1889. She was the third daughter of the Landgrave Friedrich of Hesse-Cassel, and on May 7, 1818, married Prince Adolphus Frederick, Duke of Cambridge, seventh son of King George III of England and Queen Charlotte. In 1819 the duchess gave birth to a son, the present Duke of Cambridge, commander-in-chief of the British army. Her other children were the Princess Augusta, who in 1843 married the Grand-Duke of MecklenburgStrelitz, and the Princess Mary, born in Hanover in 1833, who in 1866 married the Prince and Duke of Teck. The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge resided at Kew after the return to England of the duke, who became popular there. He died in 1850.

Carteret, Antoine, a Swiss statesman, born in Geneva, April 2, 1813; died there, Jan. 28, 1889. He entered public life in 1840, sided with James Fazy as an antagonist of the Genevan aristocracy, and when Fazy countenanced the claims of the clergy when the religious question arose Carteret succeeded to the leadership of the Radical party. Although a Protestant of Huguenot descent, he was prominent in founding the Old Catholic Church in Switzerland simply as a weapon against Ultramontanism. It was he who chiefly carried on the contest with Bishop Mermillod that resulted in the expulsion of the prelate from Swiss soil. From 1870 till his death he was a member of the National Council almost without a break. The educational law of 1872 was drawn up by him, and the erection of the old Geneva Academy into a university was his work. Differences with his party led to his being displaced from the control of educational affairs four years before his death.

Cecil, Lord Adelbert Percy, an English evangelist, born in 1841; died in Canada in June, 1889. He was an officer in the British army till 1868, when he resigned, and as a missionary endeavored to spread the principles of the Protestant religion in various countries. He perished in the waters of Lake Ontario while crossing in a sail boat to Adelphustown, where he intended to hold meetings.

Champfleury, the pen-name of Jules Hisson-Fleury, a French novelist, born in Laon in 1821; died in Paris, Nov. 6, 1889. He was the author of a long list of novels and tales, in which were first exemplified the principles of the realistic school of fiction. He also published several works of erudition. Since 1872 he had been curator of the Sèvres porcelain collection.

Clesse, Antoine, a Belgian poet, born in the Hague, Holland, May 30, 1816; died in Mons, in March, 1889. He learned and followed the trade of a gunsmith in Mons. He wrote an epic poem, "Godefroid de Bouillon," which received a medal from the Hainaut Société des Lettres when he was twenty-three years old. But it was as a writer of songs that he became famous. His uncultured verses, for which he composed simple but expressive music, were animated by earnestness and sincerity of sentiment and popular and progress

ive ideas, and placed him among the first of modern song-writers by reason of their freshness and force.

Croix, Lambert de Sainte, a French politician, born in 1827; died in Paris, Oct. 28, 1889. He was educated for the legal profession, but abandoned it to engage in political journalism as a supporter of the Orleans family, and became one of their most zealous champions and a formidable adversary of the power of Louis Napoleon. After the fall of the empire he was elected to the National Assembly, and was the promoter of the vote declaring the extinction of the empire. He aided efficiently in securing the return of the Orleans princes, was one of the most active of the Conservatives who forced Thiers to retire, labored to effect a reconciliation and union of interests between the two branches of the royal family, and was a consistent supporter of Marshal MacMahon, though he took no part in the attempt of May 16, 1877. He was elected to the Chamber in 1883, but not allowed to take his seat, and in 1889 he was an unsuccessful candidate. His splendid residence in Paris was the social rendezvous of the partisans of the Comte de Paris. Crossley, John Thomas, English educator, born in 1800; died in Chelsea, April 29, 1889. He was a pupil of Joseph Lancaster, the pioneer in England of the monitorial system of teaching, and was selected by the British and Foreign School Society to be the master of the central school conducted by that method. He published the "Intellectual Calculator" and other school-books that came into general use, and after experimenting with the system of pupil-teaching that displaced the monitorial agency, and aiding in giving it a practical development, he retired about 1849. Cuciniello, Michele, an Italian dramatist, born in Naples about 1830; died there, April 15, 1889. play, "La Maschera di cera," was suggested by seeing the corpse of a girl in the Paris Morgue who had killed herself through unfortunate love. Ten years later he dramatized a romance of Walter Scott in "Clara di San Ronano," which was followed by the comedy of "Rembrandt in famiglia," successfully produced by Cesare Rossi. He subsequently wrote a long succession of dramas, some of which form part of the repertory of every Italian actor of note, including "Un capitano del secolo XV," "Pergolesi,"

His first

Margherita Sarocchi," "Spagnoletto," which were always greeted with unbounded enthusiasm when presented in Naples. After scoring one of his greatest successes with "Maria Giuditta Brancati," he ceased writing, and amused himself with collecting colored plaster figures, the products of a decayed Neapolitan art, an interesting group of which he presented to the Museum of San Martino.

Damala, Jacques, a French actor, born in the Piræus, Greece, about 1845; died in Paris, Aug. 17, 1889. He settled in Paris, and first appeared on the stage with Sarah Bernhardt, whom he afterward married, in "La Dame aux Camélias," pleasing the Parisians with his voice, form, and refinement. He subsequently created with great success the leading male parts in "Mères ennemis," by Catulle Mendes, and Maitre des forges."

Dechen, Heinrich von, a German geologist, born in Berlin, March 25, 1800; died in Bonn, Feb. 15, 1889. He was the son of a Prussian official, and prepared himself by studies at the Berlin University, followed by practical work in the Government offices at Bochum and Essen, for the mineralogical branch of the public service, and rose by regular promotion to be director of the Rhenish coal mines in 1841, and in 1860 to be chief of the Government mining service, resigning in the following year. He published geological maps of Central Europe and Germany, and one on a large scale of the Rhenish Province and Westphalia, and wrote a work explanatory of the last named (2 vols, 1870-'84) and one on the useful minerals of the German Empire (1873).

De la Rue, Warren, an English physicist, born on the island of Guernsey, Jan. 18, 1815; died in London, April 19, 1889. He was educated at the College of St. Barbe, Paris, and then entered the house of

Thomas de la Rue & Co., of which he became senior partner on the death of his father, and from which he retired in 1880. For many years he devoted himself chiefly to business, and he invented a machine for the manufacture of envelopes. About 1851 he became interested in celestial photography, and constructed a reflecting telescope with an aperture of 13 inches and a focal length of 10 feet, with which he took photographs of Jupiter and Saturn, that have not been surpassed. John Herschel said, if he could but once see the planet itself as beautifully defined as in Mr. De la Rue's picture of Saturn he could die content. His attention was attracted to lunar photography, and with improved apparatus he succeeded in taking pictures of the moon that have only been excelled by those of Lewis M. Rutherford, of New York. He also made photographs of the sun, and his success in this pursuit gained for him recognition as the father of lunar and solar photography. In 1860 he accompanied the "Himalaya" expedition to Spain and obtained a series of photographs of the solar eclipse of July 18. On his return he devised a micrometer for the measurements of the solar protuberances, and from his results he located three fiery prominences in the gaseous envelope surrounding the His results were given in the Bakerian lecture before the Royal Society in 1862. He had set up his telescope at Cranford, near London, in 1857, but in 1873 he returned to the metropolis and then presented his instruments to the University of Oxford, where it was subsequently employed in determining by means of photography the distance of 61 Cygni and other fixed stars. In 1874 he fitted up a private physical laboratory, where, employing a battery of 15,000 chloride-of-silver cells, he carried on, with Dr. Hugo Müller, an elaborate series of researches on the electrical discharge. His results were presented in a brilliantly illustrated lecture before the Royal Institution in 1881, entitled "The Phenomena of the Electric Discharge." He was President of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1864-'66, of the Chemical Society in 1867 and 1879, and Secretary of the Royal Institution in 1878-'82. The results of his scientific work were presented to the Transactions of the Royal, the Chemical, Royal Astronomical, and other learned bodies; and with Balfour Stewart he published "Researches on Solar Physics."

sun.

In

Douls, Camille, a French explorer, born in Bordes, Aveyron, in 1864; died in the Desert of Sahara carly in 1889. He began his travels at the age of seventeen, visiting the West Indies and Central America. 1885 and 1886 he studied the life and language of the Arabs in Morocco, and in December, 1886, set out from the Canary Islands in a boat for the coast, intending to explore unknown regions in the western Sahara. He was captured by the Moors and threatened with death, escaping only by professing Islamism and joining one of the tribes, with which he explored remote parts of the desert, as far south as the tropic of Cancer. Returning then to Zemmur, he passed along the coast from Cape Bojador to Cape Juby, and then reached Tindouff by way of Saginat-el-Amra, traversed Wad Houn and Sous, crossed the Great Atlas, and arrived at the city of Morocco, where he was imprisoned, but was delivered by the intervention of the British Minister. He returned to France in December, 1887, and in June, 1888, set out with the purpose of visiting Timbuctoo. In dress, appearance, manners, and language he could pass for an Arab; but in the countries that he traversed it was known that he was a Christian and a Frenchman. He had letters from the Shereef of Wazan to the Sheikh of Touat, and was murdered for his money by his guides midway between Aoulef and Akabli.

Elze, Karl, a German philologist, born in Dessau, May 23, 1820; died in Halle, Jan. 21, 1889. He studied classical philology in Leipsic and Berlin, and while engaged for thirty years as a teacher in the gymnasium at Dessau he devoted himself to the study of the English language and literature. In 1875 he was called to Halle as Professor of English. He pub

lished biographies of Walter Scott (1864) and Byron (1870), translations of English poems, an elaborate investigation of the life of Shakespeare (1876), editions of early English plays, and one of Hamlet," the sec ond edition of which was written in English, and "Notes on Elizabethan Dramatists" (3 vols., Halle, 1880-'86), also in English. For many years he edited the "Shakspeare-Jahrbuch," the organ of the German Shakespeare Society.

Faidherbe, Louis Léon César, a French general, born in Lille in 1818; died in Paris, Sept. 29, 1889. He entered the military service in the corps of engineers, and served with credit for many years in Algeria The military and colonial organization of Senegal, of which he was governor from 1857 till 1861, first made him famous. When the war of 1870 broke out he was regarded as a general who should be brought to the front; yet it was not till the taking of Sedan that he was sent for, when he was given the command of the Army of the North, which he led with illustrious ability. His most brilliant operation was the wellcalculated victory over the Germans at Bapaume. The African climate and the fatigues of the campaign had undermined his health. When the war was over the Government offered him the Grand Chancellor ship of the Legion of Honor as the only reward worthy of him. He was also made a Senator.

Formes, Karl, a German singer, born in Mühlheim on the Rhine, Aug. 7, 1810; died in San Francisco, Cal., Dec. 15, 1889. His voice first attracted attention at the concerts for the benefit of the Cathedral fund at Cologne in 1841, and on Jan. 6, 1842, he made his début in that city as Sarastro in "Die Zauberflöte." He first sang in London at Drury Lane, appearing as Sarastro, on May 30, 1849; and made his first appearance in Italian opera as Casper in "Il Franco Arciero" at Covent Garden, London, March 16, 1859. In 1857 he appeared with the Italian Opera Company at Castle Garden, New York, and at the Academy of Music. Subsequently he sang in German opera in Germany, England, and America, and settled in San Francisco in 1876. He appeared in New York for the last time at a Sunday evening concert at the Casino, in 1885. In quality of tone, compass, and power, Formes possessed one of the finest bass voices ever heard. Its range extended from C below the staff to the F above. He had a fine stage presence, and was a good actor.

Fustel de Coulanges, Numa, a French historian, born in Paris, March 18, 1880; died at Passy, near Paris, Sept. 12, 1889. After completing his collegiate course at the age of twenty he passed through the Normal School, and for many years was engaged as a teacher. In 1861 he was appointed Professor of History in the University of Strasburg, returning to Paris in 1870 as Master of Conferences in the Normal School. Till within two or three years of his death he lectured at the Sorbonne, attracting more enthusiastic students than any other professor. He made a philosophical and comparative study of ancient religious and politi cal institutions. The "Cité antique" (1864) made his world-wide reputation. He was afterward engaged on a more elaborate work on the "History of the Political Institutions of Ancient France," in which he combats accepted opinions on various subjects. The first volume, dealing with the Roman Conquest and the Merovingian times, was published in 1875. In the same year the author became a member of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences.

Ganglbauer, Celestin, Cardinal, Prince-Archbishop of Vienna, born in Thonstadten, Upper Austria, Aug. 20, 1817; died in Vienna in November, 1889. He was the son of a peasant, was educated for the Church, and not long after he was ordained priest in 1842 be became a professor in the Benedictine College at Kremsmünster, where he spent the greater part of his life. In 1875 he became prior, and in the following year abbot of the monastery. He signalized his entrance on this office by refusing to allow the Pope's health to be drunk, as was proposed by the papal nuncio Cardinal Jacobini, before that of the Emperor of Austria. Taking no part in politics, and seeking compromise

and conciliation in all difficulties and quarrels, he was a popular prelate, who was considered moderate and tolerant until very recently, when he identified himself with the agitation for restoring the temporal dominion of the Pope, taking the leading part in the Catholic Congress of 1889. He was raised to the metropolitan see, which does not carry with it the primacy, and is much less richly endowed than some others, in 1881, on the death of Archbishop Kutschker. The Emperor made him a.privy councilor. Dr. Ganglbauer was an accomplished scholar. He was created a cardinal on Nov. 10, 1884.

Gavazzi, Allessandro, Italian clergyman, born in Bologna in 1809; died in Rome in January, 1889. After receiving holy orders he became Professor of Rhetoric at Naples, and subsequently occupied chairs in nearly all the large universities of Italy. When Pius IX was elected Pope in 1846, Father Gavazzi gave his public adhesion to the liberal and military movement that the Pontiff appeared to favor. When in 1848 the insurrection of Milan and the first defeat of the Austrians became known at Rome, he pronounced, at the invitation of the Pope, a funeral oration on the fallen patriots in the Pantheon. Pius IX nominated him chaplin-general of the forces that he raised, and when the Pope recalled his army Gavazzi did not return with them, but repaired to Florence, and devoted his talents to the revolutionary cause. He was brought a prisoner to Rome, but the Pope released him when the people rose to deliver him by force. elected chaplain-general of the Roman army, and during the period of the Revolutionary Government preached resistance to the last extremity. When the French entered Rome he went to England, where his virulent diatribes against the Papacy gave him a great reputation in ultra-Protestant circles. He gave antiCatholic lectures in Scotland, in the United States, and in Canada, where he provoked riots. Garibaldi named him chaplain of his revolutionary legion. His last years were spent in Rome, where he was engaged in putting the last touches to his "Memoirs" and on a commentary on his discourses on the Roman question and the military law, which was suggested by Mancini.

He was

Glyn, Miss, the stage name of Mrs. Isabella Dallas, whose maiden name was Gearns, born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1823; died in London, May 19, 1889. Her early inclination for the theatre was discountenanced by her Presbyterian father, but after her first marriage, to a Mr. Wills, while living in Paris sho studied for the French stage. After her husband's death she went to London, and after some instruction from Charles Kemble, appeared with success as Lady Macbeth. She played the leading female parts in Shakespeare's plays, and other characters, distinguishing herself particularly as Cleopatra, and as Beatrice in Much Ado about Nothing." After marrying E. S. Dallas, from whom she obtained a divorce in 1874, she appeared infrequently on the stage. In 1870 she made a tour in the United States. In her later life she gave readings from Shakespeare.

Gooch, Sir Daniel, an English engineer, born in Bedlington, Northumberland, in 1816; died near Windsor, Oct. 15, 1889. He served his apprenticeship under Robert Stephenson, and at the age of twenty-one was chosen locomotive superintendent of the Great Western Railroad, holding that appointment for twenty-seven years. He evolved the type of fast broadgauge express engine that is still in use, and with the first of this class he obtained in 1846 as high a rate of speed as that of the engines of to-day, which are practically unaltered from his models. No engineer has studied so deeply the subjects of atmospheric pressure, internal friction, and rolling friction in their effect on railroad speed. He retired from the railroad in 1864 to devote himself to establishing telegraphic communication between England and America, for aiding in the accomplishment of which he was made a baronet, but he was recalled to take the chairmanship of the company, which he saved from bankruptcy. He sat in Parliament for twenty years.

Grivas, Demetrios, a Greek general, born in Nauplia, Aug. 20, 1829; died in Marseilles, France, in May, 1889. He was a son of Gen. Theodoros Grivas, a distinguished commander in the war for Hellenic independence, and himself acquired early distinction in the military career. In 1862 he led the revolutionary party in the National Assembly, and he was one of the chief actors in the insurrection of the fortress of Nauplia that resulted in the fall of the Bavarian dynasty in Greece. He was one of the three who went to Copenhagen to offer the crown to Georgios I._During the present reign he sat in nearly every Parliament, and displayed political ability and, as Minister of War, great capacity for organization.

Guilbert, A. V. Frangois, Archbishop of Bordeaux, born in Cérisy-le-Foret, Manche, in 1812; died in Gap, Aug. 15, 1889. He studied theology at Coutances, received priest's orders in 1836, and after teaching in the seminaries at Coutances and Muneville-surMer, became superior of the Mortain Seminary in 1851, and founded the college of Valognes in 1853. He was appointed vicar-general of the Manche. He published "La divine synthèse," an exposition of the proofs of revealed religion, in 1864, and in 1867 was called to the See of Gap. While other clergymen threw the weight of their influence against the republic in the crisis of 1876-77, he observed a neutral attitude, publishing in 1876 his pastoral letters on the subject of the priests' duty in politics. He was made an officer of the Legion of Honor in 1877, and the Government nominated him Bishop of Amiens in 1878. In 1883 he was appointed Archbishop of Bordeaux.

Gungl, Josef, a Hungarian musician, born in Zsámbék, Dec. 1, 1810; died in Weimar, Germany, Jan. 31, 1889. After studying music with Semann, he entered the Austrian army as an oboist, and soon became bandmaster. He gave concerts with his band in Germany until 1843, when he organized in Berlin an orchestra which he brought to the United States in 1849, but was not successful in this concert tour. In 1850 he was appointed Royal Prussian musical director, and in 1858 kapellmeister to an Austrian regiment. He removed to Munich in 1864, and settled in Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1876. He gave concerts throughout Europe with his orchestra, playing chiefly his own compositions. These number three hundred, and consist of marches and dance music, including many waltzes which achieved a popularity second only to those of Strauss.

Hall, Samuel Carter, an English author, born in Topsham, Devon, in 1801; died in London, March 18, 1889. He was educated for the bar, and became a reporter in the House of Commons, but was drawn into literary pursuits. In 1824 he married Anna Maria Fielding, his coadjutor in the many books that were published in their joint name. He became editor of the "New Monthly Magazine" in 1830, gave himself up to the popularization of art, and in 1839 established the "Art Journal," which he conducted till 1880. He was one of the founders of the Hospital for Consumptives, and other London charities. Among the illustrated publications of Mr. and Mrs. Hall were "Book of British Ballads," "Gems of the Galleries of Europe," and "Baronial Halls of England." Their principal work, written mainly by Mrs. Hall, was "Ireland: its Scenery, Character, etc." (3 vols., 1841-'43). He published illustrated catalogues of the international exhibitions of 1851, 1862, and 1867. In 1870 he issued a volume of "Memories of Great Men and Women of the Age," and in 1883 "The Retrospect of a Long Life."

His wife, who died in 1881, was not less laborious, and even more distinguished than himself, especially through her sketches of life in Ireland. They produced nearly four hundred volumes. They were both public advocates of temperance.

Hamerling, Robert, an Austrian poet, born in Kirchberg, Lower Austria, March 24, 1830; died in Graz, July 13, 1889. He attended the gymnasium in Vienna while employed as a choir-boy, entered his name at the university in 1848, studying science, medicine, classical and Oriental philology, and philosophy, and

land (1889). Mr. Hueffer also wrote the text for Dr. A. C. Mackenzie's cantata "Colomba" (1883); his “Troubadour" (1886); and F. H. Cowen's "Sleeping Beauty" (1884).

Jaures, Constant, French Minister of Marine, born in Albi, Feb. 3, 1823; died in Paris, March 14, 1889. He was educated at the naval school at Brest in 1841, and became an ensign in 1845, lieutenant in 1850, commander in 1861, and captain in 1869, having served in the Crimean, Italian, and Chinese wars, and in the campaigns in Cochin-China and Mexico. Placing himself at the disposition of the Ministry of War in November, 1870, he was appointed a brigadier-general and commanded the Twenty-first Army Corps till March, 1871, in the operations on the Loire and in the departments of Sarthe and Mayenne, taking 12,000 prisoners at Mamers, and distinguishing himself by his strategy at Marchenoir, Vendôme, Bonnétable, Pont-de-gemmes, and Silléde-Guillaume. At the end of this severe and ably conducted campaign he was made a general of division on Jan. 16, 1871, and after the peace was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral. On July 2, 1871, he was elected to the National Assembly, where he took his seat in the Left Center. On Dec. 14, 1875, atthe elections of irremovable Senators, he was given a life seat in the Senate. On Feb. 25, 1876, he was appointed second commander of the Mediterranean squadron, and in April commanded the French detachment of vessels that appeared before Saloniki in a joint naval demonstration with Germany to exact satisfaction for the murder of the consuls. On Sept. 5, 1877, he was made a commander of the Legion of Honor. He was promoted vice-admiral on Oct. 31, 1878, and on Dec. 12 of that year was named minister to Spain. He acquired an excellent reputation as a diplomatist, and subsequently filled the post of minister at St. Petersburg. He had not long been a member of the Tirard Cabinet when he was stricken with apoplexy.

Johannes, Negus of Abyssinia, born about 1830; died March 13, 1889. He first became known to Europeans in 1867 as Degiac Kassai, Governor of Tigre. In 1868 he declared his independence, and assumed the title of Lord of the Ethiopian Chiefs. When Lord Napier begun his march against the Negus Theodore in 1868 he secured a promise of neutrality from Kassai, and in recompense for his benevolent neutrality he was richly provided with arms and powder by the English. On the death of Theodore the first candidate for the throne to take up arms was Gobesich, who marched into Tigre, where Kassai with 12,000 warriors routed five times that number. A year later, on Jan. 21, 1872, he had himself crowned by a Coptic bishop from Egypt. In the campaign against the Egyptians, under Munzinger Pasha, the Negus displayed his military genius in brilliant fashion, enticing the enemy into the valley of Guddi Guddi, where the entire army was annihilated on Nov. 17 and 18, 1875. A second Egyptian army under Prince Hassan was defeated on March 7, 1876, after a sanguinary battle at Gura. After this victory Menelek of Shoa, who disputed the throne with Johannes, made his submission, appearing at the Ethiopian court with a block bound to his neck, which Johannes, with a show of great magnanimity that had its origin in well-calculated motives, took off, and with his own crown crowned his contrite rival as King of Shoa. The same manner of proceeding was followed in the case of the other rebellious vassals. The last year of his life showed that their fidelity lasted only till fortune deserted him and his reputation for invincibility began to fail. The campaign of the Negus against the Italians failed because, remembering the fate of Hassan's army, they refused to be drawn out of their fortifications, and the Abyssinians had no effective siege ordnance. The Soudanese dervishes devastated the borders and sacked the towns of Abyssinia. Menelek, who had extended his dominion in the Galla country, rebelled, and the power of Johannes was sinking when he fell in a battle with the dervishes.

Joule, James Prescott, an English physicist, born in Salford, England, Dec. 14, 1818; died in Sale, near Manchester, Oct. 11. 1889. He was the son of a brewer, and at the age of fifteen began work in the brewery, which ultimately passed entirely into the control of himself and elder brother, and was conducted by them until sold in 1854. He became deeply interested in physical apparatus, and constructed various electrical appliances, including a cylinder electric machine, of which he published a description. Increasing his supply of apparatus, chiefly of his making, he soon entered the ranks of scientists as an investigator, and original papers followed one another in quick succession. The Royal Society list contains the titles of nearly one hundred papers due to him, exclusive of over twenty memoirs detailing researches undertaken by him, conjointly with Sir William Thomson, Sir Lyon Playfair, and others. His first investigation was on magnetism, in 1838, when, after constructing electro-magnetic machines and electro-magnets of novel form, he obtained important results in the theory of electromagnetism. In 1840 he determined the value of the limit to the magnetization communicable to soft iron by the electric current. He also investigated the relative values of solid iron cores for the electromagnetic machine, as compared with bundles of iron wire, and, applying the principles that he had discovered, he proceeded to the construction of electromagnets of much greater lifting power than any previously made, while he studied the methods of modifying the distribution of the force in the magnetic field. The adoption as the unit quantity of electricity of the quantity required to decompose nine grains of water (nine being the atomic weight of water, according to the chemical nomenclature then in use) was first suggested by him. Similar investigations in magnetism and electricity occupied his attention during 1841-42, leading to the announcement in January, 1843, that he was able by the magneto-electric machine to convert mechanical power into heat. At the meeting of the British Association in August, 1843, he read a paper "On the Calorific Effects of MagnetoElectricity and on the Mechanical Value of Heat," in which he gave an account of his experiments proving that heat is generated by the magneto-electric machine. This investigation was conducted in order to determine whether a constant ratio exists betwcen the heat generated and the mechanical power used in its production. It was the first determination of the dynamical equivalent of heat. Thereafter he continued his researches in this direction, devising improved apparatus and adding to the law which he had discovered. In 1847 he read a paper "On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat" before the British Association, which led many of the first scientists in England to accept his views to which they had at that time not given full adherence. In conjunction with Sir William Thomson, he studied the thermal effects experienced by air rushing through small apertures, and later the thermal effects of fluids in motion, and on the heat acquired by bodies moving rapidly through the air. The phenomena of shooting-stars was explained by him in 1847. Papers on the electrolysis of liquids, on the constitution of gases, and the heat and constitution of elastic fluids followed. He contributed largely to the development of the theory of the velocity of sound, determining the specific heat of air, pressure, constant, and other data. He introduced many original and improved forms of physical instruments that have been adopted. In 1852 he received the gold Royal medal of the Royal Society, in 1870 the Copley gold medal of the Royal Society, and in 1880 he was awarded the Albert inedal of the Society of Arts, "for having established, after most laborious research, the true relation between heat, electricity, and mechanical work, thus affording a sure guide in the application of science and industrial pursuits." In 1878 he received a pension of £200. His most valuable papers were published by the Physical Society of London in 1884 and 1887.