forming some kind of design or representing in colored shadings the forms of the human face. A skull-mask of the kind in the Berlin Museum comprises the head of a puma and a figure composed of the fore parts of the animals. Prof. E. S. Morse read a paper by Mr. F. H. Cushing concerning the work of the Hemenway Archæological Expedition in Arizona, where traces of several cities and irrigation works and often evidence of the former existence of populous settlements have been found. Senhor Netto, of Brazil, described a series of mounds giving an elliptical ground plan with a head-shaped annex in which he had found relics of a people who might be distinguished from the present Indians chiefly by the prominence of female influence among them. Signor Arzruni mentioned in a discussion on the present condition of knowledge respecting nephrite and jadeite that the famous Humboldt axe and another South American hatchet seem to be identical in substance with the European mineral, and a hatchet from Venezuela with one from Hissarlik. The anthropological classification of the native Americans was discussed by Prof. Virchow and Herr Fritsch. Prof. Virchow admitted that it would not do to speak of a primitive race; yet the ancient skulls are predominantly of a brachycephalic type. These forms seem to have persisted in the south to the present time, but in the north there has been a noticeable transition to long and medium forms. Herr Fritsch, making the types of hair a basis of distinction, would assign the Central Americans and, generally, the ancient civilized peoples of South America to a group having smooth or waving, moderately long brown hair, like that of the Polynesians; and the northwestern tribes, with those of single districts in the South, to a group with coarse, stiff hair, inclining to deep black, like that of the Mongols. Herr Nehring spoke of the domesticated animals of the ancient Peruvians. He remarked that the subject was of scientific importance because the other peoples of ancient America were poor in property of this kind as compared with these people and the Bolivians and some among the Central Americans, and because the influence of domestication on the formation of races could be better followed on these animals than on those of the old world. The animals were the dog, llama, alpaca, and Guinea-pig. Among eighteen mummified dogs from Peruvian graves examined by the speaker, types were found of a shepherd's dog, a dachshund, and a bull-dog or pug. Herr Wittmack described the useful plants of Peru, from traces found in the graves. The bread-plant was maize, which is represented on the sculptures and architectural ornaments of the people; a chenopodium and two kinds of pulse were used; and small tubers, like potatoes, but which could not be determined, and fruits of annotto had been observed in the graves. The researches of Herr Hartmann had indicated to him that the people of Mexico in the time of Montezuma possessed the same physical race characteristics as are exhibited by the present Dakotas, Pawnees, Comanches, etc. The Araucanians, Patagonians, and Fuegians might also be regarded as related to the Aztecs. The Chibchas of Colombia, instead of being an immemorially isolated people, as according to the current belief, appeared to the

speaker to have had near relatives in the people of Costa Rica and Northern Colombia; and people of Chibcha and Mexican origin met in Costa Rica. A paper was read by Herr Uhle on the primitive history and wanderings of the Chibchas. Other papers were read by Messrs. Borsari, on the constructions of the ancient Peruvians; Müller, on the Sambakis of Brazil, who had a prehistoric civilization; Von den Steinen, on his second journey to the Xingu and the confirmation of his previous conclusions respecting the relationship of the Tupi and the Caribs and on the calendar stone and various Mexican and Central American relics. M. Hamy exposed some falsifications of American antiquities which have become numerous and systematic. further revelations in American archæology, see special article CAVE DRAWINGS.)

(For

Rome. Summary of Recent Results.Signor R. Lanciani, in his comprehensive account of the excavations conducted at Rome under his official direction and their results ("Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries "), describes among the immense number of relics of the past which have been uncovered, an archæological stratum hitherto unknown, consisting of antiquities of the prehistoric and traditional age. It is, however, very incomplete, because Rome has always been rebuilding itself out of the ruins of preceding periods; yet, on the whole, he says, "it is wonderful that so much should still be left of the works raised by the ancients after a process of destruction and transformation that has been going on for fourteen centuries." Discoveries lately made on the Alban hills are cited by Prof. Lanciani as supporting the theory that Rome was founded by peasants from Alba, who were driven away by fear of volcanic action there, and militating against the view of an Etruscan origin. The name of Rome is derived by the author, from Rumon, a river, and was intended to designate its situation as a river town, in contrast to the hill towns. The name of Romulus is believed, in the light of recent philological discoveries, to be a genuine one, and to belong to the founder of the city. The only evidence as to the time when Rome was built corresponds with that afforded by recent discoveries, which would place Alba in the bronze age. Among the principal works of art discovered since 1870 are enumerated "two bronze athletes found on the slope of the Quirinal, the bronze Bacchus of the Tiber, the Juno of the Palatine, the bas-reliefs of the Forum, and the four hundred and seventy-nine busts brought together by the municipality. Other discoveries of importance, most of which have been mentioned in the previous volume of the "Annual Cyclopedia," are the house of the vestal virgins, with fifteen marble pedestals, eleven life-size statues, fragments of statues, eulogistic and historical inscriptions, and many busts and portrait heads, coins, and fragments; and the barracks of the vigiles, or police, the luxuriant ornamentation of which shows that these officers were a higher class of functionaries than common watchmen.

An Etruscan tomb, opened at Orvieto, in June, contained many bronze ornaments, arms of iron, Corinthian vases, and others of local manufactA series of Etruscan paintings on slabs of

ure.

terra-cotta, found at Coere, in 1874, and lately acquired by the British Museum, are assigned by Mr. A. Š. Murray to a date of about 500 B. C. Mr. Murray traces in them a combined influence of Corinth, of the Greeks who were settled in the Delta of Egypt and the Greeks in Asia Minor, and ultimately an influence reaching westward from Assyria. The last is noticed especially in certain conventional matters, such as the drawing of profiles of the eye and of the knee-bones; not a little of the costume, on the other hand, indicates an Etruscan origin. Seven Vulcian tombs, recently discovered at CornetoTarquinia, contained Etruscan and Campanian vases, with others imported from Attica.

Many relics of Roman operations have been recovered from the Rio Tinto mines. The most important of them is the tread-mill for raising water, the wood work of which has been well preserved by the action of the copper in solution. Instead of leaning on bars, as in the modern tread-mill, the slaves appear to have held on to ropes like bell - ropes, parts of which remain. The wheel, 4 metres in diameter, was so constructed as to utilize the weight of the men very skilfully. The pickaxes are modern in shape, and another tool is like the hoe-like spade of the Spaniards. Other objects found include the fetters, collars, and anklets of the slaves, specimens of pottery and glass, "herring-bone work," bronze urns, stamped pigs and a tube of lead, and four capitals of columns representing the Roman town. Stone hammer-heads, with depressions in the center for handles, and stone pestles and mortars attest still earlier workings than those of the Romans.

Greece. Completion of Excavations on the Acropolis at Athens.-The first place in the report of the Hellenic Society, which was made by Prof. Jebb at its annual meeting, June 24, was given to the researches which had been prosecuted in Greece itself, partly by the Greek Government, partly by the Greek Archæological Society and the foreign schools. The excavations on the Acropolis of Athens, which began from the Propylæa and were continued eastward to the north of the Parthenon, had been brought back along the south side of that structure so as again to reach the Propylæa. The entire area of the Acropolis had thus been thoroughly explored down to the bed of rock. The gains of the last twelve months from this work fell under the heads of topography and architecture, sculpture and inscriptions. Further light had been thrown on the prehistoric fortifications of the Acropolis. New fragments of the primitive Acropolis wall, which encircled the summit of the primitive citadel, had been laid bare, and in one place, at the southeast corner of the Propylæa, it was seen to have been nearly twenty feet thick. Between the Parthenon and the south edge of the Acropolis, traces had been found of a rude, oblong building, constructed partly with the drums of columns rejected, apparently, by the builders of that earlier temple, never completed, which was superseded by the Parthenon. This oblong building seemed to have been covered over with earth when the Parthenon was finished, and might have been a workshop used by the build

northward, had been traced by its foundations. It may have been the xaλothкη used as a repository for arms and stores. If so, that building did not belong, as had been supposed, to the temenos of Athena Ergane. In the same part of the Acropolis area, west of the Parthenon, the temenos of Artemis Beaurenia had been more accurately defined by the traces of the porticoes that_bounded it on the south and east. Within the Parthenon itself excavations had been carried on with a view to ascertaining whether the basis of the temple was a solid mass of stone, or consisted of foundation walls with rubble filling the spaces between them. The results were not decisive, but they showed that the solid stone basis went at least some distance beneath the pavement. Fragments had been recovered from architectural groups, which once adorned the pediments of older temples on the Acropolis-temples probably destroyed by the Persians in 480 B. C., and found buried between the basis of the Parthenon and the limestone wall to the south of it. Some sculptures of the best time had been recovered. Among the inscriptions found on the Acropolis was a copy of a decree conferring certain privileges on the Samians in recognition of their fidelity to Athens amid her disasters at the end of the Peloponnesian War. Another inscription related to the purchase of materials for the chryselaphantine statue of Athené Parthenos.

Among the objects discovered in the later stages of the excavations of the Acropolis, the head of Iris in the frieze of the Parthenon, which joins on to the block with Zeus and Hera in the British Museum, and the halves of two great pediments of Poros stone, one representing the struggle between Herakles and the Old Man of the Sea, and the other containing a monstrous figure of three blue-bearded men together, ending in three snaky tails which, coiled together, filled one corner of the pediment, are mentioned by Mr. Gardiner as of more particular interest. The outside figure on each side of the last design had also one wing. A marble head with torso, found at Ammorgos, resembles the Melian Zeus" in the British Museum; but, bearing a snake in the right hand and resembling in other respects an Asclepias from Epidaurus, is assigned to that god. This suggests the possibility of the "Melian Zeus" also being an Asclepias.

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The Older Temple at Ephesus.-From a number of fragments discovered under the temple of Artemis, at Ephesus-the one that was built in the time of Alexander the Great-Mr. A. S. Murray has been able to reconstruct a column and part of the cornice of the older temple that had been destroyed by fire. Between the lions' heads, which served as spouts for the rain that collected on the roof, the cornice had been decorated with elaborate sculptured groups, one of which represented the combat of a Lapith and a Centaur. The lowermost drum of the column was sculptured with relief, while the rest of the shaft was fluted. On a torus molding underneath this sculptured drum were remains of an inscription recording a dedication by Croesus, King of Lydia, partly at whose expense, according to Herodotus, the temple was built. Fragments enough were left of the capital to per

mit the reconstruction of a work resembling in many respects the capital of the archaic temple at Samos.

Other Explorations.-Excavations were begun by the French Archæological School, in the autumn of 1888, in the Temple of the Muses at Helicon, which appears to have been an amphiprostyle of four fonic columns, like the Temple of Victory on the Acropolis. It had been rebuilt in Roman times. While the discoveries of objects of art at the time when the works were closed for the winter had not been very important, a large number of inscriptions were found -chiefly dedicatory, and among them an epigram in verse.

Dr. Schliemann was in treaty at the beginning of the year for the purchase of a hillock named Kephaloton Tshelebi, on the site of the ancient city of Cnossos, in Crete, which is believed to have been a public building of a remote epoch. All that could be seen of it at the time were some very thick walls of the local gypsum, which were partially disinterred by the Spanish viceconsul, M. Calocherinós, in 1877. Some of the stones bear figures of ancient characters, probably mason's marks. The form of the building appears to be rectangular, about forty-four metres by fifty-five, and the walls and mode of construction exhibit points of resemblance with the prehistoric palace of Tiryns.

The peribolos of the temple of Artemis Orthia, on the hill of Lycone, near Argos, has been excavated by the head-master of the gymnasium of Nauplia so as to reveal the plan of the structure and expose a mosaic floor in the inclosed portion of the sanctuary, one half of which was formed of large pieces and the other half of small ones. Fragments of the building were found within and without the structure, and fragments belonging to a great statue, which are regarded as being remains of one of the statues of Apollo, Artemis, and Leto-works of Polycleitus-which, according to Pausanias, adorned the temple. A well-preserved torso of a female statue in marble, of admirable workmanship, was found on the east side of the peribolos. Three Muses of the Roman period were found, showing that the sanctuary was visited and prosperous till the middle of the fourth century, A. D. In one of the tombs explored by Dr. Tsoudras at Mycena have been found various objects of ivory, and among them two cylinders of unknown use. One of these is covered with ornamental circles in relief composed of shell-fish. Other ivory ornaments are the upper part of the body of a woman, holding in her left hand a branch or flower, also in relief; the lower part of the body of a woman, seated; and a small plaque, preserved entire, on which is a Sphinx in relief.

In the exploration of the Dromos at Vaphio, not far from the ancient Amycle, an unrifled grave of a woman was found, in which were two cups of gold and one of silver, adorned with representations of men, cattle, and trees; three gold rings and ladies' needles of silvered bronze with heads of amethyst; fine toothpicks and earpicks; a necklace of some ninety amethysts and another necklace of sardonyxes and agates, the stones of which were engraved with representations of men, oxen, and birds, and other articles. In digging among the foundations of ancient

buildings on the site of the ancient Corcyra, there were found a little cylindrical stela, objects of terra-cotta, and a number of statuettes, mostly female figures of various sizes-temple offerings the belongings to which apparently indicated the site of a temple of Artemis, although no temple of that goddess is mentioned in descriptions of the island.

A group of three grottoes connected by underground openings, at Aphrata, Crete, contained graves in which were earthen vases, bronze kettles, and other objects. In the ancient Eretria, in Euboea, have been found two bronze mirrors of beautiful workmanship, one bearing a relief of the abduction of Orithyia by Boreas, and the other of a Venus; and two archaic semi-white lecythi, one of which depicts Herakles carrying on his shoulders the vault of the heavens, which he has for the time taken over for Atlas, while Atlas is bringing him the apple of the Hesperides. The other lecythus is ornamented with a picture of Circe offering Ulysses a fatal potion, which the hero declines. One of his companions has already been turned into a pig.

Dr. Dorpfeld, Secretary of the German Archæological Institute at Athens, some years ago pointed out a similarity between the remains found in Tiryns with those of Carthage and other African colonies of the Phoenicians. He added to this, at a recent meeting of his Institute, that he might go further and point out analogies between the Megaron at Tiryns and Solomon's temple.

In excavating at Delos, MM. Doublet and Legrand, of the French school, have discovered two statues of women and the bronze foot of a Roman statue, with several inscriptions, among them being one of more than a hundred lines, containing the account of expenses relating to the table.

Cyprus.-The agents of the British Archæological School at Athens reported, at the annual meeting, July 10, concerning work at two sites in Cyprus-Poli tes Chrysochou, the supposed site of the ancient Arsinoë, and Limniti. The results of the excavations at Poli had hardly been so striking as those obtained in the previous year at Paphos, but, taken as a whole, the finds in Cypriot inscriptions and in works of art of various styles and periods-more especially in pottery and terra-cotta-were of very considerable interest. In the tombs, of which about twenty were opened, were found a great quantity of Cypriot pottery; black glazed ware; terra-cotta figures, mostly of poor workmanship; objects of bronze and iron, such as strigils, knives, and mirrors; alabastra; vases of various styles; glass; a little jewelry; and two inscriptions in Cypriot characters. Although the large majority of tombs opened seemed to be Ptolemaic, some appeared to be reconstructions of older sepulchres. Among the objects found were "several black-figured cylices, dating from about 500 B. C.; fragments of a red-figured vase, colored white and gold in parts, and of two or three red-figured fifth-century vases; and the upper half of a large inscribed marble stela, with the head and shoulders of a male figure of fair style. The find of Cypriot pottery was large, and the vases with figurines were numerous, the best of them being one with elaborate patterns in dull purple-black on the ruddy ground of the natural clay. The jewelry was more plentiful than good; but a

pair of silver-plated bracelets with gilt rams' heads and an engraved hematite scarab deserve mention. Two probably early limestone capitals may also be noticed." Additions were made to the materials for the study of Cypriot epigraphy.

Detailed accounts of the work carried on by the Cyprus Exploration Fund during the two seasons in which its operations have been prosecuted, have been published in the "Journal of Hellenic Studies." The antiquities obtained have been distributed between the British Museum, the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, various public schools, and other institutions. The committee propose, in continuing the work, to begin during the next season 1889-'90, a thorough exploration of the ruins of Salamis. Among the considerations by which the choice of this site has been determined are that it was the largest and most important city of Cyprus; its foundation is ascribed by a constant legend to Teucer, who crossed from Asia Minor to Carpass; it was a royal city in the eighth century B. C., and from that period till the end of the fourth century ruled over a tract of country more extensive and fertile than that possessed by any other town; it was never Phoenician, but obtained a Hellenic character under the influence of Evagoras, and from that period until late Byzantine times was the center of civilization in the island; its great shrine of Zeus was accounted of equal splendor with that of Aphrodite at Paphos.

Persian.-Special galleries have been allotted in the Museum of the Louvre to the relics

FIG. 4.-FIRE-ALTAR IN ENAMELED WARE OF THE PARTHIAN EPOCH.

fire altar in blue-enameled ware of the Parthian or Sassanian epoch. It was only about sixteen inches high, and is supposed to have been used in

domestic devotion. Besides the monumental remains, the excavations have yielded large numbers of objects in ivory, bronze, alabaster, and earthenware. Among them are Chaldean, Elamite, and Persian seals, in hard stone, that fill two cases in the museum. They are usually very finely engraved. Figure 5 reproduces in relief, the engraving of an archaic Chaldean cylinder of dio

from the harem on the Elamite tumulus to his official apartments. I sought in vain for a third staircase which was demanded by the arrangement of the plan. It had been completely destroyed. But traces of the substructure of a portico symmetrical with the eastern one were found on the west of the Apadana. The three colonnades of the palace and their bicephalous pillars might escape the notice of visitors unless they should perceive them through the large

bays at their ends. Otherwise one might spend all the time admiring the elegance and majesty of the porticos before penetrating into the royal inclosure. The throne-hall dominated the fortifications on the north by its whole height, and upon that grand pedestal offered itself to the pious admiration of the people of Elam. .. . The isolation of the colonnades, their exceptional prominence, and their brilliant ornamentation, indicate that the king reserved to himself the exclusive use of that part of his palace. Of all the prerogatives attached to the sovereign power this was the most enviable, for one could not dream of a spectacle comparable with that which unfolded itself before the eyes of the sovcreign when from his throne he beheld Susiana laid out at his feet.

rite, representing an offering, with an archaic inscription. A two-headed capital of great dimensions from the palace of Artaxerxes is complete, some parts of it being almost as well preserved as if they were of yesterday. The bulls are regarded as exceptionally fine specimens of ornamental sculpture. A complete model of the palace of Darius is under execution for the Susianian galleries. The importance of this monument is set forth in the following description by M. Dieulafoy:

The royal constructions were elevated upon a nearly rectangular platform about 17 or 18 metres high, rising clear upon the Elamite tumulus. The northern coast of the defenses was brought to a level with the floor of the palace, so that the sovereign could from the threshold of his house view the whole chain of the Baktyaris mountains and the plain and city of Susa. The southern face of the platform of the Apadana formed one of the sides of the parade-ground between the citadel and what is called the Elamite mound. The chief entrance to the parade-ground was situated on a line with the axis of the throneroom on the east and at the foot of the walls of the citadel. Without considering the lateral constructions, all anterior to Darius, we will pass over this gate and direct ourselves toward the palace of Artaxerxes. In front rises a gigantic staircase, occupying the center of the southern face of the Achemendian platform and resting with its lateral extremities on two towers attached to the fortifications. Like the staircase of the Takhté Jemchid, it is composed of four flights grouped into two systems. Ascending the steps, which were gradual enough to be climbed by a horse, we reach the outer court, which is bounded on the east and the west by the ramparts. The middle of the aisles is occupied by hypostyle porticoes decorated by fanciful animals. In front of the staircase, a wide bay opens itself, which is included between two piers like the pylons of the portico Viçadayon at Persepolis. The Susian pylons were covered with white and rose mosaic and topped with the magnificent procession of lions. Before crossing the threshold of the second court, we perceived the thronehall, open like the talars of the Persian palaces.

The Apadana was isolated from all the surrounding buildings; on the south by the inner court; on the east and west by a ditch 22 metres broad, at the bottom of which, on a firmly built roadway of gentle grade, rolled the royal chariots in going up from the plain to the palace. On the east, looking toward the throne-hall, was a newer portico, commanding the entrance to a second staircase and the road laid out on the ramparts for the use of the king when going

Syrian.-Three inscriptions of series, discovered at El Heiyat in the Hauran, relate the dedication by Proklos, the son of Aumos, of a Ganymede, a Hermes, and an Aphrodite, for each of his two sons and his daughter respectively. The name of the divinity is not given, but two parallel Phoenician inscriptions found at a site southeast of Tyre records similar dedications to Moloch Astarte and to the Lord Baal of the heavens. The inscriptions show that traces of the the time of Christianity and suggest how the ancient worship of Baal survived down to near ancient devotion of the children themselves as sacrifices to the God yielded to the substitution of figures resembling them and bearing the names of divinities to whom they might be likened.

Assyrian and Babylonian. The Earlier Babylonian Dynasties.-Mr. G. Bertin, seeking to retrace the earlier Babylonian dynasties from the cuneiform tablets in the British Museum, has found a series of Semitic and Akkadian kings, of whom the names only until the time of Sargon are known, while their dates are uncertain. The Babylonians placed the beginning of the historical period at the time of the first Kassite invasion under Hammurabi I, 6200 B. C. The second Kassite dynasty was succeeded by a Semitic period, B. c. 4000 to 2371, during which the cities the remains of which have been explored were predominant.

Amraphel, King of Shinar.-The date of King Hammurabi, the sixth ruler in the first Babylonian dynasty, who is identified by Dr. Schrader with the biblical Amraphel of Shinar, one of the four kings against five, appears to be fixed by a cylinder of Nabonidus, relating to the rebuilding of the temple Bit-Samas. The inscription relates that a strong wind blowing away the mud disclosed the foundation stone of the temple, and made visible "the writing of the name of Hammurabi, the old king, who seven hundred years before Burnaburyas, had erected Bit-Samas and the tower over the old foundation for Samas."