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under the direction of Bishop Aneyros, of Buenos Ayres. Among the prominent Catholics who died during the year were: Mgr. Nardi (February 23d), an able editor and publicist on the Catholic side in Italy; Brother Vacile, the Superior of the Christian Brothers (April 2d); Cecilia Bohl de Faber, a popular Spanish writer known as Feruan Caballero (April 3d); Mrs. E. S. Ellet, an American writer (June 3d); Mrs. Sarah Peter, of Cincinnati, a daughter of Governor Worthington, of Ohio, a lady of great zeal and benevolence (February 6th); Most Rev. James R. Bayley, D. D., Archbishop of Baltimore (October 3d); and Bishop de St.-Palais, of Vincennes (June 28th). (See Biographies and OBITUARIES.)

ROUMANIA, a principality of Southeastern Europe. Prince, Charles I., son of the late Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen; born April 20, 1839; elected Prince of Roumania, May 10, 1866; married November 15, 1869, to Elizabeth, Princess of Wied. The area is 46,799 square miles. The population was, at the close of 1873, estimated at 5,073,000, of whom 2,618,136 were males, and 2,454,864 females.

(For an account of the religious statistics, movement of population, the different nationalities, the population of cities, the finances, and commercial statistics, see ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA for 1876, page 753.)

In 1876, the length of railroads in operation was 1,233 kilometres; that of the telegraph lines, 4,046, and that of the wires 7,024 kilometers. The number of Government offices was seventy-nine, and of railroad offices eighty three.

The Roumanian army was divided at the beginning of the war, according to Rüstow ("Der orientalische Krieg in seiner neuesten Phase," 1877), into four classes: 1. The standing army; 2. The territorial army; 3. The militia; and 4. The civic guard in the cities and the landsturm in the communes. A certain contingent is annually recruited for the standing army, which in 1876 consisted of 6,000 men. The service in the standing army extends from the twentyfirst to the twenty-ninth year, four years in the active army, and four years in the reserve. The standing army comprises 8 regiments of infantry, each of 2 battalions, and each battalion of 4 companies (the companies, in time of war, are to consist of 5 officers and 280 men); 4 battalions of chasseurs, of 4 companies each; 2 regiments of cavalry, red hussars, of 4 field-squadrons each, a squadron comprising 5 officers and 215 men; 2 regiments of artillery, each of 7 batteries, and each battery having 6 guns; 1 battalion of engineers, of 4 companies; 1 company of pontonniers; and, besides, train, administration, sanitary department, etc. The entire standing army therefore comprises 22,000 combatants, infantry and cavalry, and 84 field-guns. In the territorial army, the term of service is also

from the 21st to the 29th year; but here six years are spent in the active army and two years in the reserve. In 1876, 6,600 men were recruited for the infantry of the territorial army, and 2,400 men for the cavalry. The infantry and cavalry of the territorial army numbers about 40,000 men. The artillery comprises 7 batteries and 1 train, in all 44 guns. The militia consists of all men between the ages of 21 and 37 who belong neither to the territorial nor the standing army, and all those between the ages of 29 and 37 who have served in either of these two armies. The civil guard in the cities, and the landsturm in the country, comprise all men between the ages of 37 and 45. When the troops were mobilized in 1876, Prince Charles assumed the chief command. The army was divided into four divisions, one cavalry reserve, and one artillery reserve.

Considerable excitement prevailed in Roumania at the beginning of the year, in consequence of the articles of the new Turkish Constitution having reference to the tributary states. The designation of Roumania as a privileged Turkish province, and of the Roumanians as Osmanli, as is done in Articles I., VII., and VIII. of the Constitution, created a storm of indignation. Therefore the Chambers held secret sessions on January 2d, in which this question was discussed. The Lower Chamber on the 3d held a public session, in which a deputy asked the Government whether the Articles I., VII., and VIII. had reference to Roumania. M. Jonescu, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, declared that he had made an inquiry of the Porte to that effect, and that the answer had been in the affirmative. A motion was subsequently made, in which the Government was requested to protest energetically against the Turkish action, which was unanimously adopted. The Senate on the following day adopted a resolution demanding "that the ancient privileges of Roumania, recognized and guaranteed by the Treaty of Paris, be respected and remain intact." Considerable opposition to the ministry made itself manifest during the proceedings. The protest of the Roumanian agent in Constantinople, in accordance with the above resolutions, was warmly seconded by the representatives of Germany and Austria. The Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs consequently declared that he must have been misunderstood. The territorial position of Roumania alone made it impossible that it should be placed in the same category with the other Turkish provinces, and the Porte had never thought of demanding that the Turkish Constitution should be introduced where a constitution had existed for many years. A ministerial crisis occurred in February, owing to the disorganized state of the finances. On February 7th it took a favorable turn, as Bratiano, the President of the Ministry, succeeded in inducing Demeter Sturdza, who had resigned from the cabinet a short time previous

was not at war with Turkey, considerable cannonading was kept up between Widin and Kalafat. The session of the Chambers was closed on June 27th.

The Chambers met again on November 27th. The speech from the throne contained the following reference to the hopes of Roumania as respects the results of the war:

ly, to enter it again as Minister of Finances. As Sturdza was in favor of a demobilization of the reserves, and a strict neutrality toward the Porte, his reentrance into the cabinet clearly showed the policy to be pursued. He made The most important act of this session was it, however, dependent upon the adoption of the declaration of the independence of Roumathree radical measures-the reduction of the nia from Turkey, which was passed on May armaments, the sale of state domains, and an 21st. On that day, M. Cogalniceano, the Minincrease of taxes. Consequently, not only no ister of Foreign Affairs, replying to a question, reserves were called out, but 4,000 men of the said: "We are a free and independent nation, standing army were sent home, and all ex- but, in order to obtain the recognition of our penses for armaments were stopped. He re- independence, we must vindicate our cause signed his position, however, in March, and before Europe." The Chamber then unanion April 4th the Chamber adjourned. In the mously adopted the following order of the day: beginning of March an encounter occurred "The Chamber takes note that war is probetween Turkish and Roumanian troops on claimed between Roumania and Turkey, and an island in the Danube. The Roumanians declares the connection between the two counclaimed that the Turks had violated their ter- tries dissolved. The unanimously desired inritory, and had first fired upon them. In dependence of Roumania thus receives official the affray which followed, the Turkish lead- sanction, and the Chamber counts upon the er was wounded, and afterward died. The sense of justice of the guaranteeing Powers." authorities on both sides agreed to have the The Senate also unanimously-adopted a similar case investigated by a mixed commission, order of the day, affirming the independence which, however, separated without having ac- of Roumania, and subsequently voted the bill complished anything. The large concentration creating a military decoration. of Turkish troops in Widin in April caused considerable commotion in Roumania. It revived the apprehension held for some time previously, lest the Turks, in case of war, should cross the Danube and establish themselves on the bluff on which Kalafat is situated, and thus operate in Roumania against the Russians. At a cabinet council held on April 15th it was therefore determined to increase considerably the forces already stationed at Kalafat, so as to be able to resist, in case of need, any descent of the Turks. At the same time the Roumanian Government laid its apprehensions before the Powers. The nomination of M. Cogalniceano as Minister of Foreign Affairs was looked upon as a decided step toward an alliance with Russia. With the approach of war, the army was mobilized, and concentrated in Wallachia. Colonel Slaniceano, the Minister of War, also resigned, and was appointed chief of staff. The beginning of hostilities between Russia and Turkey was the signal for renewed activity, and Prince Charles placed himself at the head of the troops. The extraordinary session of the Roumanian Chambers was opened on April 26th. Prince Charles, in the speech from the throne, said: "As the Powers declined to guarantee the neutrality of Roumania, or to assist her, they could only rely upon themselves and upon their own exertions to prevent their territory being made the theatre of war. For this purpose the nation would make every sacrifice." The Minister of Foreign Affairs then laid before the House a convention with Russia, dated April 16th, in accordance with which Roumania assured to the Russian troops free passage and the treatment due to a friendly army, while the Czar bound himself to respect the rights of the principality. This convention was adopted by the Chamber by a large majority. (See TURKEY.) Although Roumania

We hope, on the fall of Plevna into our hands, to reap on its ruins the peace so dear to us. We are also convinced that out of its ruins we shall see the independence of Roumania recognized by all Europe, and their blood shed in a noble cause. The Prince thanks to our patriotism, the bravery of our soldiers, has the firm belief, and the Senate and Chamber will certainly share it with him, that the guaranteeing Powers have by this time become convinced that she is a nation able to fulfill the mission reserved for Roumania is a country possessing real vitality; that her on the Lower Danube, having the perseverance to accomplish it, and the energy to defend it when necessary. The time of foreign tutelage and vassalage has passed away for us; Roumania is now, and will remain forever, a free and independent nation.

RUSSIA (EMPIRE OF ALL THE RUSSIAS), an empire in Europe and Asia. Emperor, Alexander II., born April 17 (new style, April 29), 1818; succeeded his father, Nicholas I., February 18 (March 2), 1855; crowned at Moscow, August 26 (September 7), 1856. He was married on April 16 (28), 1841, to Maria Alexandrovna, formerly Maximiliane Wilhelmine Auguste Sophie Maria, daughter of the Grand-duke Louis II. of Hesse. Children of the Emperor: 1. Heir-apparent, Grand-duke Alexander, born February 26 (March 10), 1845; married November 4, 1866, to Maria Dagmar (born November 26, 1847), daughter of King Christian IX. of Denmark. (Offspring of the union are two sons and one daughter: Nicholas, born May 18, 1868; George, born May 9, 1871; and Xenia, born April 6, 1875.) 2. Grand-duke Vladimir, born April 10 (22), 1847; married August 27, 1874, to Marie, daughter of the Grand-duke Frederick Francis of MecklenburgSchwerin. (Offspring of the union is one son, Cyril, born September 30 [October 12], 1876.)

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1875.

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1875.

179,780,000

221,442,000

136,466,000

109,898,000

128,864,000

133,704,000

186,462,000

180,759,000

19,729,000

83,281,000

86,114,000

40,068,000

20,707,000

25,819,000

88,415,000

16,684,000

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ers. Among those that entered, there were 2,475 Russian, 2,365 British, 1,653 German, 1,476 Swedish-Norwegian, 1,896 Turkish, and 28 American vessels.

The commercial navy, in 1876, was composed of 1,785 sailing vessels, of 391,000 lasts, and 151 steamers, of 105,962 lasts.

On January 1, 1877, there were 20,879 kilometres of railroad in operation in Russia, inclusive of Finland, and exclusive of Caucasia. In the latter country, there were 1,004 kilometres in operation. On the same date, 2,136 kilometres were in course of construction. The number of post-offices in 1875 was

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SACRED GATE OF THE KREMLIN.

THE KREMLIN, MOSCOW.

3,412; of letters sent, 63,244,156; postal-cards, 1,419,094; wrappers, 3,636,508; registered letters, 2,984,787; valuable letters, 5,653,297; packages, 1,771,295; and newspapers, printed matter, etc., 42,808,598. The money sent through the mail amounted to 1,488,137,542 rubles, and the value of the packages sent was 49,509,105 rubles.

The telegraph statistics, according to a report of the American Secretary of Legation in St. Petersburg, are as follows:

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The military preparations, begun in 1876, continued unabated in 1877. In the early part of January, the railroad companies throughout the empire received orders to have all transportation of freight cease by January 27th, so that the roads could be used exclusively for military purposes. The Grand-duke Nicholas, the commander-in-chief of the Russian forces, was afflicted during the early part of the year with a serious disease (it was termed by some inflammation of the bowels), so that he was forced for a time to leave the army, and on February 6th arrived in Odessa. In the beginning of March he was so far restored that he could again attend to his duties. Although a strong party in Russia was in favor of peace and disarmament, the mobilization of the army continued as vigorously as ever. On March 3d, the Emperor ordered that the divisions stationed in the military districts of St. Petersburg, Vilna, Moscow, and Warsaw be formed into nine army corps. This measure tended to increase the war excitement, although the Minister of War declared in his official organ, the Invalide, that it was only a necessary step

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