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only of a race, or province, or town, or of an illustrious personage. Universal history retraces the events of a people. General history surrounds with a single coup d'œil the revolutions of a great state, or of many nations connected together by great interests. In regard to time, history is distinguished as ancient history, the history of the middle ages, and modern history. The history of the world is divided into several great epochs, or by centuries; that is to say, the space of one hundred years. These centuries are counted in diminishing until the birth of Jesus Christ, and as augmenting from the birth of Jesus Christ until the present time, which serves, therefore, as the startingpoint. They say, therefore, this race was founded, or such an event took place, so many centuries before or after Jesus Christ. Amongst the sciences which aid the foundation of history, geography, genealogy, and chronology hold the first rank; and in the divisions of the last-mentioned the knowledge of the different eras is indispensable. All nations have not adopted the same divisions of time. The Hebrews count by the Sabbath years, the space of seven years. The Greeks by the Olympiad, the space of four years. The Romans by the space of five years, or lustres. An era is a fixed point of departure, from which each separate nation commences to count their different years. There is, therefore, the Greek era, the Roman, the Syrian, the Christian, the Arab. Syncronism means the report of facts happening at the same time. To make anachronisms means to make faults in chronology. In order that events may be classed in our memory, and that we may be able to assign to each nation the century of its foundation, we have drawn up a list of the successive races, from the establishment of the first states until our days (1844). This list is called the historical ladder. We will divide these nations into three parts, the ancient, the intermediate or middle ages, and the modern.

ANCIENT HISTORY.

The ancient races whose history is little known are—

1. In Asia, the Indians, the Chinese, the Japanese, the Scythians; in Africa, the Ethiopians; in Europe, the races of the Celts and Basques.

The races whose histories are known are

2. In the 25th century (2467) before Jesus Christ, the Egyptians founded Misraim, in Africa.

3. In the 23rd century (2296), the Hebrews; first patriarch, Abraham; in Asia.

4. In the 20th century (1993), the Assyrians; founder, Belus. From the ruins of the Assyrian empire arose, in the 8th century, the Medes (759); founder, Arbaces. The Babylonians (759); founder, Belesis. The Ninevites (759); founder, Phul; in Asia.

5. In the 17th century (1640), the Phoenicians; founder, Agenor; in Asia.

6. In the 16th century (1582), the Greeks; founder, Cecrops; in Europe. The principal nations in Greece were the Athenians (1582); founder, Cecrops. The Thebans (1549); founder, Cadmus. The Spartans (1516); founder, Lelex. The Corinthians (1328); founder, Sisyphus. The Mycenians (1348); founder, Perseus. 7. In the 16th century (1506), the Trojans; founders, Tenar and Dardanus; in Asia.

8. In the 9th century (860), the Carthaginians (Phoenician colony); founder, Dido; in Africa.

9. In the 8th century (753), the Romans; founder, Romulus; in Europe.

10. In the 6th century (536), the Persians; founder, Cyrus ; in

Asia.

11. In the 4th century (360-336), the Macedonians; founders, Philip and Alexander; in Europe. At the death of Alexander (324), the Macedonian Empire was divided into four kingdoms between the generals of the conueror: Macedonia to Cassander, Thracia to Lysimachus, Syria to Seleucus, Egypt to Ptolemy, son of Cassander. 12. In the 3rd century (256), the Parthians; founder, Arsace; in Asia.

Birth of Jesus Christ in the year of the world 4963, 50th century.

13. In the 3rd century (228) after Jesus Christ, the Persians; founder, Artaxerxes; in Asia.

14. In the 4th century (395), the Eastern Empire; first emperor, Arcadius; in Europe and in Asia. In 476 the Roman

Empire fell, caused by the invasion of the barbarians of
Germany.

The principal barbarous nations who have invaded the Roman empire are

IN THE FIFTH CENTURY AFTER JESUS CHRIST.

15. In the 5th century (505), the Burgundians, whose chief was Gondicaire; in Europe.

16. In 409, the Suavians; chief, Hermanric; in Europe.
17. In 409, the Vandals; chief, Genseric; in Europe.
18. In 409, the Alains; chief, Gonderic; in Asia.

19. In 418, the Franks; chief, Pharamond; in Europe.
20. In 455, the Anglo-Saxons; chiefs, Hengist and Horsa; in
Europe.

21. In 457, the Huns; chief, Atilla; in Asia.

22. In 476, the Herules; chief, Odoacer; in Europe.

23. Goths; in 493, the Ostrogoths; chief, Theodoric. In 408, the Visigoths; chiefs, Alaric and Hermanric; in Europe. 24. In 568, the Lombards; chief, Alboin; in Europe.

PRINCIPAL BARBAROUS NATIONS WHO INVADED ROME THE
SECOND TIME.

25. In the 5th century, the Avares, from Asia.
26. The Gepides, from the Baltic.
27. The Bulgarians, from Scythia.

28. The Veneids, from the Baltic.

29. The Slavonians, from the Baltic.

30. In the 9th century, the Hungarians, from the Volga. 31. In the 10th century, the Germans, come from the Rhine. 32. The Danes, from Jutland.

33. The Normans, from Jutland.

34. In the 15th century, the Turks, from Asia.

Ancient

history commences at the creation of the world, and ter-
minates with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in
476, caused by the invasion of the barbarians.
more than 54 centuries (4963 to 476

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PEOPLE OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

5439).

It lasted

35. In the 5th century (481), the French, founded by Clovis ; in Europe.

36. In the 6th century (568), the Lombards, founded by

Alboin; in Europe.

37. In the 6th century (584), the Spaniards, founded by Leovigild; in Europe.

38. In the 7th century (622), the Arabs, legislated by Mahomet; in Asia.

39. In the 8th century (711), the Moors; principal chief, Abderam; in Spain.

40. In the 9th century (813), the Swedes, founded by Biorne; in Europe.

41. In the 9th century (827), the English; first king, Egbert; in Europe.

42. In the 9th century (842), the Poles, founded by Piast; in

Europe.

43. In the 9th century (862), the Russians, founded by Kurick; in Europe.

44. In the 10th century (911), the Germans; first king, Conrad. I.; in Europe.

45. In the 10th century (911), the Danes, founded principally by Harold VII.; in Europe.

46. In the 10th century (1001), the Hungarians, founded by Stephen I.; in Europe.

47. In the 12th century (1129), Neapolitans and Sicilians; first king, Roger II.; in Europe.

48. In the 12th century (1139), the Portuguese; first king, Alphonso Henriques; in Europe.

49. In the 12th century (1198), the Bohemians, founded by Ottocar I. ; in Europe. ;

50. In the 13th century (1300), the Turks in Asia, founded by Osinan I.; in Asia.

51. In the 14th century (1308), the Swiss (Republic); liberators, Melchtal, Stauffacher, Walterfurst, Guillaum Tell; in Europe.

52. In the 15th century (1453), the European Turks, founded by Mahomed II.; in Europe. The history of the Middle Ages commences at the fall of the Western Empire of Rome, and terminates in the middle of the 15th century, on the establishment of the Turks in Europe. It lasted nearly 10 centuries, from 476 to 1,453-977.

MODERN HISTORY.

53. In the 15th century (1453), the European Turks; Mahomed II.

54. In the 15th century (1492), the Americans; discovered by Christopher Columbus.

The principal people are the Mexicans, in the 16th century (1518), discovered by Cortez; the Peruvians, in the 17th century (1525), by Pizarro; the Brazilians, in the 16th century (1500), by Alvares Cabrae; the Anglo-American United States, in the 18th century (1782), having become independent of England through Washington.

55. In the 16th century (1581) the Hollanders and the Belgians; stadtholder William I. of Orange.

56. In the 18th century (1701), the Prussians; first king, Frederick of Hohenzollern.

57. In the 18th century (1718), the Sardinians; first king, Victor Amedeus.

58. In the 19th century (1805), the Bavarians; first king, Maximilian Joseph.

59. In the 19th century (1805), the people of Wurtemburg; first king, Frederick.

60. In the 19th century (1830), the modern Greeks, Cape

d'Istria.

61. In the 19th century (1830), the Saxons; first king, Frederick Augustus.

62. In the 19th century (1830), the Hollanders; William I. of

Orange.

63. In the 19th century (1830), the Belgians; Leopold of Saxe

Coburg.

64. In the 19th century (1833), the modern Greeks; first king, Otho, of Bavaria.

Modern history commences in the middle of the 15th century (1453 to 1850), 397 years, nearly four centuries.

ANCIENT HISTORY.

The different races whose history is nearly unknown.

IN ASIA.

The Indians are probably the most ancient people in the world, and the first teachers of other nations; their geographical position, the historical documents their sacred language provides them with, their Brahmins and their priests, are the three reasons which well-educated people bring forward to attest their antiquity; still their history is little known. It is written that Bacchus, a Grecian hero of the 14th century before Christ,

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