(4th century), of the Arabs in the 9th century, of the Genoese in the 10th century, of the Venetians in the 13th century, and the Turks, by whom they were overcome.

The Syracusans in Europe, in Sicily to the south east, capital Syracuse. The government of the Syracusans was by turns republican and tyrannical; amongst the kings we will cite Dionysius the Tyrant and Dionysius the Younger. The Athenians set siege to this town in the 5th century; the Romans took it two centuries after, and remained masters of it up to the invasion of the Barbarians. Syracuse belonged to the king of the two Sicilies.

The Caledonians were of Celtic origin. Their manners were barbarous. They were beaten by the Roman General Agricola, and afterwards by the Emperor Severus (3rd century), who erected the celebrated wall between Scotland and England; there still remain some vestiges of it.

The Britons were of Celtic origin; they were governed by their own laws up to the time of the conquest of the southern coasts by Julius Cæsar (55 years before Jesus Christ). One century later, under the Emperor Domitian, Agricola took entire possession of the Isle, and in the 3rd century it became a Roman province. In the 5th century, when the Barbarians invaded the western empire, the Romans withdrew their troops from Britain. Destroyed by the numerous excursions of the Caledonians, the Britons applied for help to the Angles and Saxons, Germans, and were at last destroyed by their defenders. Some of them retired into the Principality of Wales, the others into Gaule Armorica, now called Bretagne. The Germans came from the centre of Europe, warriorlike and simple, but sanguinary, continually attacked by the Romans for two centuries and a half, but never entirely overcome, they attacked them in their turn, and defeated them under the Emperor Augustus, conducted by Arminius; they threw themselves in hordes over the Western Provinces, and established themselves there. greater part of the European nations are the descendants of this warriorlike people.

The

The Gauls were of Celtic origin; they were enterprising and revengeful. About the 6th century before Jesus Christ they made five important expeditions. The first under the command of Bellovesus, they passed the Alps and formed a colony in the north of Italia. They built Milan, Cremona, and Padua, &c., the 6th century before Jesus Christ.

The second expedition under Sigovesus about the same epoch, crossed the forest of Hyrcinia, and formed a colony in the centre of Germany in Bohemia and Pannonia. The third, under the command of Brennus I., the descendant of Bellovesus, vanquished the Romans on the borders of the Allia, took Rome, and, after a short stay, set it on fire. They were repulsed by the General Camillus in the 4th century.

The fourth expedition took place under the command of Belgius and of Brennus II. They ravaged Macedonia and Thracia, then went as far as Greece to pillage the temple of Delphi. This expedition was unfortunate (3rd century).

The fifth expedition, in the third century, formed a colony in Asia Minor, where they had been to place Nicomedeus on the throne of Bithynia. Gallatia, or Gallo Greece, became their resting place. At last this warriorlike race was subjugated by Julius Cæsar, who reduced the Gauls entirely, and placed them under the Roman dominion. In the 5th century after Christ, Gaul was invaded by the Franks, the Burgundians, and the Visigoths, and formed the kingdom of France under Clovis 1st (481).

The Iberians or Spaniards were partly of Phoenician origin. They were successively overcome by the Carthaginians and the Romans, and their country became the theatre of long and terrible wars between the two nations. In the 5th century Spain was invaded by the Suavian nation, the Alains, the Vandales, and the Visigoths. These last established themselves there definitively.

ITALY.

The Etruscans were cited as the most ancient people of Europe. Their origin is uncertain, and their history little known. They bore successively the name of Tyrrhenians, which the Greeks gave them. The Romans called them Thusei, owing to their attachment to their own Gods. It is from this name that the word Etrusci is derived. Their taste for the fine arts has made them celebrated. Their country was divided into twelve States, each governed by a prince called Lucumon. Amongst them we distinguish the Fiei and the Falisqui. The Romans received from them a taste for the arts, the sciences, and military tactics; also for religious ceremonies; the Romans sent several colonies into this country.

The Latins inhabited Latium; they considered themselves.

aborigines. They sustained several wars against Rome, who defeated them several times, particularly near the lake Regilae, in the 5th century before Jesus Christ (498). They subjugated them entirely in the 4th century (340). Several rights, according to the law called Julian, in the 1st century (90). The principal Latin nations were the Volsci, the qui, and the Rutuli.

The Sabines were the most ancient people of Italy. It is believed they came originally from Peloponnesus. They were already powerful at the time of the foundation of Rome. The Romans having taken away their wives and their daughters, they penetrated into Rome, consented to a treaty, and incorporated themselves with the Romans, who subdued them in the 4th century.

The Samnites, the descendants of the Sabines, the most terrible enemies of the Romans, whom they made to pass under the Caridine yoke; they were subjugated by this nation in the third century after long and bloody wars.

The inhabitants of Tarentia, a powerful nation, but celebrated for their weakness, their luxury, and their bad manners. They were governed first by kings, and constituted themselves afterwards into a republic. Having provoked the vengeance of the Romans, they called Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, to their aid, the greatest captain of his time (3rd century). After some success they were subjugated; they revolted soon afterwards, and took the part of Annibal, but on the retreat of this great Carthaginian general, they remained ever afterwards under the power of the Romans.

AFRICA.

The Moors, inhabitants of Mauritania, a wandering race whose history is little known; they placed themselves under the protection of the Romans. Octavius reduced their country into a Roman province and devastated it; he gave them Juba for a king. The Emperor Caligula assassinated his son Ptolo-⚫ mus (1st century). The Moors armed themselves, having at their head an officer of Ptolomy's, but they succumbed once more and became Roman subjects. The Numedi were a wandering race; their frugality and skill are known; they were excellent cavaliers, and were only known to the Romans in the second Punic war. They were governed by Massinissa, who took the part of the Romans. Jugurtha, the nephew of this

prince, after a sanguinary war, was carried prisoner to Rome, and in the 1st century Numidia was reduced to a Roman province. After the invasion of the Barbarians, this country passed successively to the Vandals, the Arabs, at last into the power of the Turks. It forms now the kingdom of Algiers.

PEOPLE WHO HAVE INVADED THE EMPIRE OF ROME.

The Burgundians under the care of Gondicarius traversed Germany, and established themselves in the western part of Gaul. They were governed by dukes up to the time of Charles the Bold. After his death Burgundy became a fief, and was united to the crown by Louis XI. in the 15th century. The other part passed to Austria.

The Suavians, under Hermanricus, their chief, traversed Germany and Gaul, and established themselves in Spain, where they were vanquished by the Visigoths (6th century).

The Vandals, conducted by Genseric, traversed Germany, and united with the Suavians, devastated Gaul and Spain, where they established themselves towards the south. Then on the approach of the Visigoths, they crossed into Africa, and founded a kingdom in the ruins of Carthage. They were vanquished by Bellisarius, Justinian's general (6th century),

THE ALAINS.

The Alains, with their chief, Gonderic, traversed Pannonia (Hungary), Germany, and Gaul, and established themselves in Spain, where they were defeated by the Visigoths (5th century).

The Franks were an independent association of Germans, amidst whom we remark the Sicambrians. They passed the Rhine, under Pharamond, their chief, established themselves in the north of Gaul, spread themselves little by little over the country, and at last took possession of all that part of the globe called France.

The Angles and Saxons, whose chiefs were Hengist and Horsa, were called into Great Britain by the inhabitants, so that they might defend themselves from the incursions of the Picts and Caledonians. After having chased the barbarians, they took possession of Great Britain, and formed seven separate kingdoms, called the Heptarchy.

The Huns, who had at their head Attila, advanced as far as Pannonia. They invaded Gaul, where they were defeated at Chaleres sur Marne, Actius, the Roman general, seconded by

the Franks, under the safe conduct of Merovius, and by Theodoric, king of the Visigoths. After this terrible defeat, Attila ravaged Italie. At his approach the Venedians fled into the marshes near the Adriatic and founded Venice. The death of Attila caused discords, which dismembered the empire of the Huns. Some of them established themselves in Pannonia (Hungary), the rest populated Poland and Russia.

The Herulian chief was Odoaceus. They came and established themselves in Italie, and chased Romulus Augustus from the throne (5th century), but they were in their turn vanquished and chased by the Ostrogoths.

The Goths, the most terrible of the ancient German race, were headed by Hermanric (5th century). They divided themselves into Visigoths (the Goths of the West) and Ostrogoths, or Goths of the East.

The Visigoths were headed by Alaric. They traversed Greece, passed into Italy, took and sacked Rome twice. They then established themselves in the midst of Gaul, from whence they had been chased, passed into Spain, where they gained a victory over the Alains, the Suavians, and the Vandals. The kings of the Visigoths governed Spain up to the 8th century, when Pelages the last king was chased by the Moors. He retired into Asturia, where he founded a kingdom.

The Ostrogoths, whose chief was Theodoric, went to Italie and vanquished the Heruli, but they were then chased from thence by the Lombards. This was the first German nation that embraced Christianity.

The Lombards, under their chief Alboin, established themselves in the north of Italy, from whence they were chased by the Ostrogoths. This kingdom was destroyed by Charlemagne, after the defeat of Didier, their last king (8th century). It had lasted two centuries.

The Alani, who started from the borders of the Caspian Sea, come down to annoy the Emperors of Constantinople who accorded them Pannonia. They were scarcely established, when they ravaged Thracia, and forced the emperors of the East to pay them tribute.

The Bulgarians, of Scythian origin, on the borders of the Danube, in the 7th century, they subdivided themselves into Croat Moravians and Volaqui, and Bulgarians properly so called.

The Gepides came from Sweden, also the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths, from whom they separated themselves on their