In 1801 the blacks proclaimed their independence. After many internal revolutions, France recognized the freedom of St. Domingo. It underwent another revolution in 1850.

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.

Holland formed, in former times, part of Belgian Gaul; it was conquered in the 1st century by Julius Cæsar, and passed successively to the Franks, the Counts of Hainault, the Dukes of Bourgogue, and the house of Austria. The King of Spain, Philip, by his tyranny, lost this country. Its independence was acknowledged in the treaty of Munster and Westphalia, in the year 1648. In 1794 Holland was invaded by France, and the republic established. Bonaparte, in 1806, gave the kingdom to his brother Louis, and afterwards divided the kingdom into departments, and added them to France. In 1815 Holland was united to Belgium, and formed one country under William I. of Orange. In 1830 the Belgians revolted, and the separation of these states was proclaimed in Europe. William III. remained on the throne of Holland; he was born 19th February, 1847. Leopold of Saxe-Cobourg, King of the Belgians, was born the 16th December, 1790.

PRUSSIANS.

The Prussians were not formed into a monarchy until 1701. Frederick, Elector of Brandebourg, was the first king. His grandson, Frederick II., on his elevation to the throne in 1740 (surnamed the Great Frederick), invaded Silesia by the help of France. He sustained in 1756 a formidable coalition; his genius saved him. The reign of William II., his successor, was a feeble one; he dissipated the vast treasure amassed by Frederick. William III. declared war against France, and formed part of the coalition against it. Frederick William IV., his son, was the reigning monarch in 1848; he was born the 15th of October, 1795.

SARDINIANS.

Sardinia is composed of Savoy, properly so called, of Piedmont, and Sardinia. Savoy was under the Romans, composed of Gaul Transalpine. It passed successively to the Burgundians, the Emperors of Austria; and in the 11th century (1040), Conrad, Emperor of Germany, gave up to Humbert, of the White Hand

St. Maurice, Valais, and Chablais. His descendants soon extended their domains by conquest. Still, the sovereigns were only called Counts of Savoy; Amedie VII. took the title of Duke; and Victor Amedie II., in 1713, being master of Sicily, was declared king of it. Sardinia was given him in exchange for this island; from thence the title of King of Sardinia, which was accorded him 1718. Victor Emanuel II., born the 14th of March, 1820, is of the family of Corignan.

BAVARIA.

Bavaria formed anciently part of Venetia, Vendelicia, and Nonqua. The Boieus inhabited it under the Emperor Augustus. It was successively governed by kings, dukes, and counts, dependent on Charlemagne and on the Electors of Bavaria. On the 1st of January, 1805, Maximilian Joseph took the title of king. Bavaria afterwards increased considerably. Maximilian was king in 1850.

SAXONS.

The Saxons, in the time of Charlemagne (8th century), extended along the borders of the Rhine. Witikind, their chief, fought for a long while against the forces of the empire, and was at last overcome. It was in the 9th century that we first heard of the race of the Dukes of Saxony, continued up to the present time. At the time of the dissolution of the Germanic Corps, the Electorate of Saxony was formed into a kingdom (1806) in favour of Frederick Augustus. It was overthrown in 1814 by the Congress of Vienna, in favour of the King of Prussia. The reigning king is Anthony, born December the 27th, 1855. The regent, Frederick Augustus Albert Marie, nephew of the king, was born the 18th of May, 1797.

WURTEMBURG.

Wurtemburg was formerly part of the Duchy of Suabia, and erected into a county by the Emperor Henry IV. (11th century) in favour of Conrad. The Dukes of Wurtemburg belonged formerly to the empire. Frederick II. was decorated with electoral dignity in 1803; he was created king in 1805 by Napoleon. William, his son, succeeded him; he was born September the 27th, 1781.

MODERN GREEKS.

Greece was conquered by the Romans in the 2nd century before Jesus Christ. It afterwards formed part of the Eastern Empire during the space of eleven centuries, and remained under the dominion of the Turks after the fall of this country. Greece was reduced to slavery under the heavy hand of the Mahomedans. It often tried to recover its liberty. At last, in 1821, a bloody revolution took place, which was put a stop to by the intervention of foreign powers, chiefly by France. Greece became free. Capo d'Istria, one of the chiefs of the new republic, was assassinated in 1831, and Greece was formed into a kingdom. Otho, of Bavaria, governed it in 1850; he was born the 1st of June, 1815.

GENERAL HISTORY.-A REVIEW.

ANCIENT HISTORY.

God gave birth to the universe. The first inhabitants drew upon themselves His vengeance. A terrible catastrophe takes place, leaving on the habitable globe one single family-that of Noah. Human beings multiply, families assemble themselves, nations are formed, and emigrants depart from Asia, the cradle of the human race; the globe becomes populated, governments are established, and commerce gives birth to languages, arts, &c., and gradually force and justice lend each other mutual help.

Amongst the nations which succeed each other, we perceive the Egyptians, celebrated for their wisdom, their laws, and their arts; the Hebrews, long known as God's privileged race; the Assyrians, ruined by luxury and riches; the Phoenicians industrious merchants, who extended their traffic over the greater part of the ancient world; they were the scourge of the Carthaginians, whom the Romans, in three bloody battles, completely extinguished; the Medes and the Persians, formed from the remains of the Empire of Assyria, which fell also, notwithstanding the genius of Cyrus, the conquests of Cambyses. and the formidable expeditions of Darius and Xerxes. The Greeks of Egyptian and Asiatic origin form one of the principal parts. Egypt gave birth to poets and legislators, who afterwards instructed their vanquishers, and left, even after their fall, the memory of their chef d'œuvres rendered immortal by their

genius. The Macedonians, who also overcame Greece, Asia, and part of Africa, under Alexander the Great. The Romans, whose history from this time forms that of the world. Three great warriors caused this nation to tremble: Brennus, chief of the Gauls; Hannibal, general of Carthage; and Mithridates, king of Pontus. The monarchy of Rome became a republic, and then an empire. One single man commanded everywhere, but they were chiefly tyrants. One of the emperors, Constantine, under the auspices of religion, divided the forces of the empire and formed a new capital. Misfortunes followed misfortunes, and the colossal Roman Empire became weakened, and fell under the blows of barbarian nations; and from their ashes (476) arose new states still in existence.

HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

The Visigoths, the Vandals, the Swedes, the Alains, the Burgundians, the Trones, the Lombards, the Angles, and the Saxons formed new states (5th century) in Spain, in Gaul, in Italy, and in Brittany. They caused a revolution in government, laws, manners, belles lettres, arts, and sciences. The Franks in the end preponderated, and the secular power of the Popes commenced.

The Arabs, under their legislator, Mahomed, commenced a new religion, which extended with their empire over Asia, Africa, and Spain. France itself was menaced, and saved from the Moors by Charles Martel, whose grandson, Charlemagne, was the greatest man of the century in which he lived; he reorganized the Western Empire (800).

But at the death of Charlemagne (814), several kingdoms were formed of the remains of this empire, and new ones formed, traceable in those of the present day.

Other states were established by the Normans, the Russians, the Hungarians, &c.

The feudal system, or power of the great lords, soon extended itself all over Europe; royal authority became diminished, vassals grew strong, and anarchy was the consequence of this mode of government, which would have overcome monarchies but for the usage of faith and homage to kings. Chivalry checked to a certain extent the injustice of the great, as enthusiasm and honour animated some of the nobles.

One other power, more unfortunate still for the welfare of the human race, was that of the Popes, who, from the time of

Gregory VII., formed the ambitious project of making themselves sovereigns. Their quarrels with Germany disturbed

Europe for centuries.

The Crusades, in the 11th and 15th centuries, powerfully influenced European States, developed the intelligence, concentrated power in the hands of the kings, and diminished that of the grandees.

The establishment of the Houses of Commons was the consequence, and gave birth to ideas of liberty. Italy became covered with little republics; the kingdoms of the Two Sicilies and that of Portugal were founded; Magna Charta was proclaimed in England, and pontifical power diminished. Switzerland became separated from Germany; and three great discoveries form a revolution in human affairs: first, gunpowder (14th century), which completely changed military tactics; second, printing, which extended our ideas in carrying on communications with different nations; third, the compass, which assists mariners in overcoming the dangers of navigation, and, through the compass, leads them on their discoveries of foreign countries.

An important event terminates the history of the middle ages the taking of Constantinople by the Asiatic Turks, headed by Mahomet II. (1453).

MODERN HISTORY.

Les belles lettres flourished in Italy, France, and England. A Genoese, Christopher Columbus, discovered America (1492). Vasca de Gama, a Portuguese navigator, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and found the route to India. A religious reform took place, owing to the German monk, Luther, and extended itself all over the world, causing bloody wars, which threatened to replunge Europe into a state of barbarism. The peace of Westphalia, in 1648, caused religious quarrels to cease, and became the base of the political system in Europe. The house of Austria was diminished; it had from the time of Charles V. aspired to universal monarchy.

France, under Louis XIV., succeeded to the colossal power of Austria; the peace of Utrecht put a stop to his ambition (1713). Europe, however, was not wholly free from fear of this universal power. Fresh influences arise, and Frederick II., of Prussia, and Peter the Great of Russia, derange part of the