amongst the kingdoms of Europe. But, in 1830, the Poles tried to recover their liberty. They heroically resisted the numerous army of Nicholas, but at last they gave way, overpowered by an army three times as numerous as their own, and Poland once more became the property of Russia. The Russians are at the present time the possessors of Varsovia, which forms the viceroyalty of Poland.

RUSSIA.

The Russians appear to have been a mixture of Scythians, of Huns, of Cimbrians, &c., &c. The commencement of their history is uncertain, and very uninteresting. Several families have governed this country.

1st. That of Burick, who founded the Russian empire in the 9th century (860).

2nd. That of Wlademir, called the Great, who was converted by the Greek church, and baptized in the 11th century (1015). He is considered the apostle and the Solomon of Russia.

3rd. That of Ivan and John IV., first czar, in 1584.

4th. That of Michael Romanof, in 1613. It was under this dynasty that Russia emerged from obscurity. Peter the Great, his grandson, civilized the nation, established the navy, built in a very short time large towns and forts, vanquished Charles XII. at Pultowa, and truly merited the title of the Legislator, and Restorer of Russia. He ascended the throne in 1695; he died in 1725.

The reign of Elizabeth, his daughter, lasted twenty years. formed an epoch in the annals of the country (1741 to 1762). On the death of this princess, the family of Holstein Gotthorp ascended the throne of Russia in the person of Peter III., grandson of Peter the Great, and son of Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein Gotthorp, and of Anne of Russia, eldest daughter of Peter the Great (1762).

Peter soon lost his life and throne, and left the crown to his wife, the celebrated Catherine II. of Russia (1762 to 1796). This princess made war with success in Turkey and Sweden, and assisted in the ruin of Poland. Paul I. succeeded her, and joined in the coalition against France, and ended by concluding peace with that country. He fell the victim of a conspiracy in 1801. He was succeeded by Alexander I. his son. This prince sustained a terrible war against the French, who carried their victorious arms to the centre of his empire. Napoleon's am

bition and the Russian climate enabled Russia to triumph over her foe in the campaign of 1812, and Alexander conducted his soldiers to Paris. This young prince died suddenly at Tangaroh in 1825. The crown then, owing to the renunciation of Constantine, became the property of Nicholas I. his brother. His reign was signalised by his victories over the Turks, and by the Polish revolution.

GERMANS.

The Germans inhabited part of Germany the third century after Jesus Christ, and that part of Germany called Suavia. Clovis I., King of France (5th century), vanquished them at Tolbiac, and annexed them to his vast empire. Charlemagne reduced them to obedience by the victory of Paterborn, and made himself master of Italy, after having made a prisoner of Didier, King of Lombardy. Thus France, Germany, and Italy. at that time formed only one kingdom, and were governed by the firm head and hand of Charlemagne, who thus formed the commencement of the Western empire in (800). At the time of the division of the empire between the sons of Charlemagne, several Seigneurs made themselves independent. This was the origin of the German States. One of them retained the title of Empire.

THE GERMAN EMPIRE.

In 912 the Germans

a king for themselves.

threw off the French yoke, and chose This is the commencement of German

history properly so called. Amongst the dynasties that governed Germany we remark :

1st. The House of Franconia, whose first king was Conrad I. (10th century), (912).

2nd. The House of Saxe (10th century), whose first king was Henry l'Oiseleur. This was a brilliant epoch, Otho the Great (936), is the hero of this dynasty. He conquered Italy, was feared by his vassals, and took the title of Emperor, which has since appertained to the supreme chief in Germany.

3rd. The House of Franconia (Salic), whose first king was Conrad II. (1024). The kingdom of Arles or Bourgognes was incorporated by the empire; but Germany was torn by the quarrels of the Emperor Henry IV. and the Pope, Gregory VII.,

on the subject of investiture. The Seigneurs profited by these dissensions to render themselves independent.

4th. The House of Suabia Hohenstauffen, whose first king is Conrad III., who joined in the Crusade with Louis XII., King of France (1137). After this period Italy escaped entirely from the imperial jurisdiction. The number of independent princes increases, and royal authority becomes but a shadow. Amongst the kings of this family we remark :-1st. Frederick Barbarousse, who joined the Crusade with Philip Augustus and Richard Coeur de Lion. He died in crossing the Cydnus. 2nd. Henry VI., the Nero of Germany, who kept Richard Cour de Lion captive. 3rd. Frederick III., one of the greatest monarchs in Europe, celebrated for his wars and his quarrels with Rome. 4th. Conrad IV., the last king of this branch, which became extinguished in the person of the young and interesting Conradine. The King of Naples, Charles of Anjou, the brother of St. Louis, perished on the scaffold. He was only 17 years of age

INTERREGNUM.

An interregnum of twenty-three years followed the death of Conrad IV. Several Emperors were elected at the same time. Numerous States arise. Italy and Germany become revolutionized. The same interests connect them all. The diets of the imperial court were the safeguard of the German corps.

At last the electors gave the supreme dignity to Rudolphus of Hapsburg, in 1273; he was only a simple count. He vanquished Ottocar, king of Bohemia, took possession of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola.

The family of Hapsburg was one of the most powerful and most remarkable in Europe. The family became connected with powerful nations by marriage, and was composed of two famous branches. That of Spanish Austria, commenced by Charles V. (1519), and ended in 1700, by the death of Charles II., king of Spain; 2nd, that of German Austria, commenced in the person of Ferdinand, brother of Charles V., in 1556, and ended by the death of Charles VI. (1740).

1. Albert I. of Austria, whose tyranny was the cause of the independence of Switzerland, in 1308.

2. Charles IV. of Luxembourg, who dissipated the royal

revenues, and who managed to limit the royal authority, thanks to the boule d'or (1355).

3. Frederic III., an avaricious, unjust, and ignorant prince, under whom the Turks established themselves in Europe in 1453.

4. Maximilian (1493), who increased the power of the House of Austria by his marriage with Marie of Bourgoyne, the daughter of Charles the Bold, and sole inheritor of her father.

5. Charles V. (1519), the most powerful monarch of his century, and the rival of Francis I. He abdicated in 1556, and retired to the convent of St. Just.

6. Ferdinand I., who fixed the imperial crown in Bohemia and Hungary (1558).

7. Mathias Ferdinand III., under whom the thirty years' war took place; it was caused owing to the ambition of the House of Austria from 1618 to 1648, who wished to unite Spain and the empire a second time. He was the last male of his line, and

left the throne to his daughter, Maria Theresa, in 1780.

The House of Austro-Lorraine, whose first sovereigns were Francis I. of Lorraine, the great Duke of Tuscany, and Maria Theresa. This family still reigns (1850) in the person of Francis Joseph I.

The seven years' war, the division of Poland, the conquests of Bonaparte, who made Francis II. keep to his hereditary estate only, in 1806, and at last the coalition against France, are the four great events that we find in the history of this dynasty.

GERMAN CONFEDERATION.

In 1806 all the princes of the south of Germany composed the Confederation of the Rhine, which was replaced by the German Confederation, established in 1814. In the first place the Diet formed itself into a general assembly, and Austria had the precedence. Ordinary Diets were held at Frankfort-on-theMaine.

THE DANES.

Ice

Ancient Denmark was divided into several little sovereignties. Every little island had a king, and Jutland had several. land was the residence of the most powerful of these little princes, who amused themselves with piracy, like all northern nations of that period.

The Danes made many expeditions against Great Britain and France. They subjugated part of England, and formed several kingdoms in it. As to France, they did nothing but ravage and pillage it. They were intrepid, and used to sea voyages. They introduced a style of savage religion, which was adorned with a sort of savage grandeur.

In the 10th century Christianity was introduced almost by force into Denmark. Some time before the king, Gorm, a German, took possession of the sovereignty, and reigned over a great part of Denmark. Seani was one of these provinces, but Slewigh was seized by the Emperor of Germany, and turned into a margraviat.

On the other hand Sweyn, grandson of Gormon, conquered England, and his son, Canute, added to it the conquest of Norway, and this prince held for a time the three sceptres.

In the 11th century (1042) England had again her own native kings, and Denmark lost the government of Norway. Denmark upset, tost and torn by internal wars, was weakened daily.

Waldemar I. restored, in the 12th century, some éclat to the Danish power. The daughter of Waldemar III., called Marguerito, having married Haguin VIII., king of Norway, was regent over both kingdoms, and conquered at the same time Sweden. They wished to secure this union of the three northern countries by the famous treaty of Calmar, in the 14th century. This union scarcely lasted half a century.

In the 15th century (1448) Sweden detached itself entirely from Denmark, in the same year the ancient dynasty of the kings Schioldungues became extinct. The Danes presented the throne to Christian I., of the race of the counts of Oldenburg. Religious reform was introduced into Denmark in the 16th century, without much trouble or difficulty.

In the commencement of the 19th century (1807), the King of Denmark having refused to join with England against the Emperor of the French, who domineered all over Europe, England bombarded Copenhagen, and forced the government to give up their fleet. The Danes still upheld Napoleon, and the allied powers that of England; and in 1814 Norway was taken from Denmark and given to Sweden. The allies gave Denmark the German Duchy Lauenburg. Frederic Charles Christian, born the 6th of October, 1808, is at present on the throne (1850).