The revenue for the year concluded was £2, 800,000, and the expenditure £2,633,783.

The Assembly resolved that an amendment to the Constitution be adopted, to allow the option of addressing Parliament in the Dutch language. The further extension of railroads was decided upon, including a line to West Griqualand. Harbor improvements were also authorized. The railroad construction authorized involves expenditures amounting to five millions sterling.

CARLYLE, THOMAS, an eloquent British author and leader of contemporary thought, died at his house in Chelsea, February 5th. He was the eldest of a family of eight children. His father, James Carlyle, the son of a small Scotch tenant farmer, was a working stonemason at the time of the author's birth, and afterward became a prosperous farmer; he was a man of rectitude and energy, possessing mental traits and endowments similar to those which, developed in literary form, gave his son the mighty influence he has exercised over the English mind. All his sons became men of character and ability. Thomas Carlyle was born at Ecclefechan, a village near Dumfries, December 4, 1795. He learned to read and write in the parish school of Hoddam, and was taught the elements of Latin by the minister. In his ninth year he passed into the burgh school at Annan. Before his fourteenth birthday he entered the University of Edinburgh. He made few friends, and was little interested in the professors and their teachings, although they numbered among them men of European reputation, who were able to inspire an unu sual zest in the generality of students for the literary and philosophical studies of the classroom. Carlyle devoted himself to reading, exploring with avidity the college library and the various circulating libraries of the city. These independent and desultory studies were so confining as to impair his health. Under Sir John Leslie, whom alone among the professors he made his friend, he obtained a knowledge of mathematics rare among youths of his years. He was destined for the ministry by his father, but after passing through the four years' curriculum of arts he concluded that he could not conscientiously follow that profession. "Now that I had gained man's estate,' he said, recounting the spiritual crisis he passed through in deciding the question, "I was not sure that I believed the doctrines of my father's kirk; and it was needful I should now settle it. And so I entered my chamber and closed the door, and around me there came a trooping throng of phantasms dire from the abysmal depths of nethermost perdition; doubt, fear, unbelief, mockery, and scoffing were there; and I wrestled with them in agony of spirit." He embraced the calling of a teacher, and first taught mathematics in the school he had lately attended in Annan; and after remaining there two years went to Kirkcaldy to teach mathematics and the classics in the burgh

school, wishing to be near his friend Edward Irving, who had a private school in the same town. After two more years spent in this uncongenial pursuit, in which he acquired the name of a stern pedagogue, Carlyle went up to Edinburgh to embark in the profession of literature. His first employment was in the compilation of Brewster's "Edinburgh Encyclopædia." At the instance of Sir David Brewster he translated Legendre's "Geometry and Trigonometry," prefacing it with an essay on proportion. At this time he made the acquaintance of the German language and its literature, the treasures of which were first unlocked to the English-reading public by his sympathetic translations and criticisms. His brother, Dr. John Carlyle, who afterward acquired a place in literature by his translation of Dante, was at that time studying in Germany. Carlyle contributed to the "New Edinburgh Review" an article on "Faust," the first product of his German studies. He was for several years tutor to the gifted Charles Buller. He joined the staff of brilliant writers engaged upon the "London Magazine," to which he contributed in 1823 the first part of his "Life of Schiller," and in the following year a translation of " Wilhelm Meister's Lehrjahre." Goethe's novel and the style of the translation were sharply assailed by the critics, led by De Quincey, one of the few Englishmen who at that time knew anything about the master-poet of Germany. Undeterred by the contempt with which that masterpiece of German literature had been received, Carlyle in 1827 published several volumes of "German Romance," containing translations of short pieces of fiction by the principal writers of the romantic school.

In 1827 Carlyle married Jane Welsh, daughter of Dr. Welsh, of Haddington, who was a descendant of John Knox. Carlyle's wife owned a farm among the Dumfriesshire hills, whither he betook himself and lived for six years, wrapped in his literary work, with his wife for his only companion. Mrs. Carlyle was in character and intellect hardly inferior to her husband. In the seclusion of Craigenputtock farm Carlyle wrote the essays on Burns, Goethe, and Johnson, Heyne, Novalis, Voltaire, and Diderot. "Sartor Resartus" was written at this period, but not published till years afterward. The young author, by the independent and selfprompted work which he was enabled to accomplish in his mountain retreat, gained a great name, and was occasionally sought out by visitors from afar who had drawn light from his philosophy and hailed him as their teacher. Emerson visited him at Craigenputtock, and listened with wonder to the brilliant and original talk which streamed from the lips of his host. Carlyle wrote for the "Edinburgh Review," but was frequently offended at the ruthless liberties that Jeffrey took with his manuscript, which was pruned and patched by that pedantic editor into conformity with his finical canons of taste. With Napier as editor, Carlyle's

relations with the review were pleasanter. Jeffrey in a letter to his successor warns him that Carlyle would not be a proper contributor "that is," he explained, "if you do not take the liberties and pains with him that I did, by striking out freely, and writing in occasionally. The misfortune is that he is very obstinate and, I am afraid, very conceited." Carlyle composed "Sartor Resartus" in 1831. This remarkable work of philosophical satire and profound reflection went begging for a publisher, and first appeared in a magazine, seven years after it was written. In order to be near libraries and obtain the advantages of social intercourse necessary to an author of his rank, he left his rustic home for London in 1834, settling in the house in Cheyne Row which he inhabited till the day of his death. The productivity of his genius in the first few years of his metropolitan residence was extraordinary. He labored incessantly and with intense application. He worked with the pen from ten to three every day, and, after an intermission for exercise, visiting, and letter-writing, studied all the evening. He had to wait long for recognition in London. The reviewers ridiculed the eccentricities, the roughness, the strange choice and collocations of words, the incomprehensible Germanicisms, and all the peculiarities of his style. The publishers were not eager to print his productions. Even the "French Revolution," the most brilliant and impressive, and the most characteristic product of his genius, did not immediately find a publisher. The occasion of the removal of Thomas Carlyle and his wife to Chelsea was the publication of "Sartor Resartus." Only in America did this work meet with unhesitating admiration. Thomas and Mrs. Carlyle found cordial and appreciative friends among the literary profession, and a knot of eminent writers delighted to gather in their small house in the suburb. Between 1837 and 1840 Carlyle read some courses of lectures in London on "General Literature," "The History of Literature,' "The Revolutions of Modern Europe," and "Heroes and Hero-Worship," which wrought a profound impression in intellectual society. "The French Revolution," the first work which bore Carlyle's name on the title-page, was published in 1837. The first volume he had been obliged to rewrite. He had lent the manuscript to John Stuart Mill, who had confided it to Mrs. Taylor, whose servant, it is supposed, took it to kindle the fire.

ters and Speeches," a successful book. The Great Protector was only known to the English people before the publication of Carlyle's memoir in the image of the mingled hypocrite and fanatic, lunatic, scoundrel, and buffoon, pictured by his detractors. In 1851 Carlyle published a biography of his friend John Sterling. Between 1858 and 1865 came out Carlyle's "Frederick the Great," the product of long labor and critical research. In its preparation he resided some time in Germany, and visited the scenes of Frederick's battles. This was Carlyle's last great work. During the American civil war he gave out, in "Ilias in Nuce," his morose reflections on the destiny of the republic and the value of the institution of slavery. In 1865 Carlyle was elected rector of Edinburgh University. In the following year, while he was absent, delivering to the students a lecture on the choice of books, his wife died. The loss of his companion was to him a source of poignant grief; he wrote that "the light of his life had quite gone out." In 1867 the discussion of the extension of the suffrage brought out "Shooting Niagara, and After," a dismal vaticination of the terrible consequences of democratic freedom. In 1870 he published, in the London "Times," reflections on the FrancoGerman War, expressing approbation of the prospective annexation to Germany of Alsace and Lorraine.

Carlyle exerted as far-reaching an influence upon the men of his time through his conversation as through his published writings. In speaking, he was less apt to fall into the grotesque involutions of phrase and idiosyncrasies of language which mar his writings. These faults of style grew upon him, and render his later works difficult and disagreeable to read. His letters were free from these vices. In early life, he wrote rapidly, and spent little pains on revision; but in later years he corrected, rewrote, erased, and interpolated with excessive care.

Carlyle was ailing several years before his death. He left some autobiographical materials, which were committed to James Anthony Froude, as his literary executor, and were published by him without excision. The pungent and sometimes unkind reflections on friends and associates of Carlyle caused much indignation against the editor and no little sorrow among the friends of the dead philosopher.

Thomas Carlyle propounded a social philosophy, which did not fall in with the spirit of the age, but which acted as a corrective to the current doctrines. As a critic, he disclosed real flaws in the habit of thinking that has grown up, which regards the collective opinion of the commonalty, which is only derivative, and must often be outstripped by the authors and actors of history, as the prime impulse in social progress. He exalted the value of the individual will, and delighted in the exhibitions of energy and power by the rulers of modern times, with too little discrimination of their

motives or of the effects of their acts on civilization.

CARPENTER, MATTHEW H., born in Moretown, Vermont, in 1824; died in Washington, February 24, 1881. In 1843 he entered the Military Academy at West Point, where he remained two years. He then went to Boston and studied law with Rufus Choate, and was admitted to the bar. In 1848 he removed to Wisconsin, and entered the practice of his profession, in which he soon became eminent for his legal ability and brilliant talent, which won him high reputation in the Supreme Court of the United States even before his entrance into public life. Not until after the war did Mr. Carpenter take an active part in politics. Before and during the war he was a Democrat; but, when the leading men took sides on that issue, he became a Union man. When, at the close of the contest, he espoused Republicanism, his generally recognized ability commanded for him the active support of that party in Wisconsin, and in 1869 he was elected to the United States Senate in place of Senator Doolittle.

Mr. Carpenter served in the Senate from May 4, 1869, until March 3, 1875, and occasionally showed great power as a lawyer and debater, but lacked those qualities necessary to make a public man understand public sentiment. He belonged to that class of brilliant politicians who so strongly influenced the proceedings of Congress from 1869 to 1875, and of which General Butler was a representative man. About this time Mr. Carpenter was the victim of malicious slanders, but he was able to prove to general satisfaction that they were groundless. In 1874 Wisconsin Republicans, like the party elsewhere, were suffering from the injudicious action of Congress upon the salary bill and like matters, and the feeling against the railroad corporations was also a distracting element. The party had, however, a majority in the Legislature, but a considerable portion of it was made up of Independents. Mr. Carpenter received the caucus nomination for Senator, but the independent minority refused to vote for him. After a protracted struggle, the Democrats joined the independent Republicans and elected Mr. Cameron. Mr. Carpenter accepted his defeat, vouched for the Republicanism of his successor, and retired to his extensive law practice, taking little interest in political affairs. During the contest over the presidential succession of 1876-'77, Mr. Carpenter appeared before the Electoral Commission as one of the Tilden counsel, and made an argument in his behalf. The Legislature of Wisconsin, which met in January, 1879, was called upon to choose a successor to Senator Howe. The contest between Messrs. Howe, Keyes, and others was a bitter one, and finally Mr. Carpenter was presented as a compromise candidate. He had been approved on financial questions, and his superior talents rose paramount over all the opposition formerly urged.

His election gave general satisfaction to the Republicans. He took his seat March 4, 1879. Among several speeches which he addressed to the Senate, all remarkable for their ability, that against the Fitz John Porter bill is regarded as his finest effort. His course in politics during his last term in office was much more independent than previously, and as a lawyer he had few equals in Washington, where most of his later years were spent.

CENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES. (See UNITED STATES CENSUS.)

CHEMISTRY. The president of the Chemical Section of the British Association, Professor A.W.Williamson, made the growth of the atomic theory during the last fifty years the subject of his opening address at the last year's meeting, maintaining that its general validity had been confirmed by the tests of experimental application to which it had been rigorously subjected. The binary or dualistic theory of combination, and the doctrine of multiple proportions which were formerly connected with it, and which seemed to be satisfactorily applicable to the simpler compounds and the salts, broke down when chemists came to deal with double compounds which were not saline in character, and with the carbon compounds; and it became necessary to find other methods of accounting for the phenomena of chemical combinations. As the investigations were continued with reference to this object, the idea of substitution came to be more and more used in the place of that of mere additive combination. Elementary chemical reactions which, according to the binary theory, were supposed to consist of dualistic processes, involving sometimes the assumption of forces (like predisposing affinity) of a purely metaphysical character, were explained as consisting of atomic displacements, or interchanges of a kind well known to be of common occurrence. Many products of the combination of known molecules have been found to be formed by processes of double decomposition, so that each molecule of such products is built up partly of atoms derived from one of the materials, partly of atoms from the other. In the organic compounds, many of the molecules having a very complex structure have been found to undergo in their reactions very simple changes, of the same kind as those which mineral compounds undergo. Families of organic compounds have been discovered whose members are connected by close analogy of constitution and properties, each of them forming a series, each term of which is a compound whose molecule contains one atom of carbon and two atoms of hydrogen more than the previous one. Our knowledge of molecules has undergone a most remarkable and important extension by the discovery that various elements in what we are accustomed to consider the free state, really consist of molecules containing like atoms combined with one another. Those marvelous varieties of matter called isomeric compounds have found

their natural explanation in differences of the respective arrangement of like atoms. The term "equivalent was introduced to indicate the proportional weights of analogous substances which were found to be of equal value in their chemical effects. Tables of the equivalent weights of acids were made, representing the proportions of the several substances that were found to be of equal value in neutralizing a fixed quantity of a certain base; and similar tables were made for the bases, as well as for the elements themselves. But little attention was paid under the dualistic system to the essential difference between atomic weights and equivalent weights; but under the later developments of the theory of the functions of atoms, it has become necessary to study the relation of equivalence between elementary atoms, instead of studying them from the point of view of elements divisible in any proportion. From this has sprung the division of the elements into classes consisting respectively of equivalent atoms known as monads, dyads, triads, tetrads, etc., the character of which is well represented in the four typical compounds, Cl H, OH2, NH, CH4, where chlorine appears as a monad, oxygen as a dyad, nitrogen as a triad, and carbon as a tetrad. This has probably been one of the most important steps yet made in the development of the atomic theory, and has been seen to correspond in so clear and striking a manner with a vast number of well-known properties and reactions of compounds as to deserve and acquire the confident trust of chemists. Another great step has recently been made which may be destined to lead to most important results. It has been discovered that if we arrange the elements in the empirical order of their respective atomic weights, beginning with hydrogen, and proceeding thence step by step up to the heaviest atom, we shall have before us a natural series with periodically recurrent changes in the chemical and physical functions of its members. Of course the series is still imperfect, and exhibits gaps and irregularities; but some of the gaps have been filled up by the discovery of elements possessing the anticipated properties, inducing the hope that the others may be filled. The generalization affords a brilliant addition to the previous corroborations of the reality of the units of matter which chemists have discovered. But little account has as yet been taken of atomic motions; but it has been proved that the heat of combination affords a measure of its force, and we know that, in giving off heat, particles of matter undergo a diminution of the velocity of their motion. The force of chemical combination is evidently a function of atomic motion, but a vast amount of work will be required to develop the atomic theory to the point of explaining the force of chemical action in precise terms of such motion.

iamson regards the opinion that atomic values are invariable, or are variable only within particularly defined limits, as an error. He remarked in a recent address that he had been frequently struck by the fact that two theories, believed at one time to be conflicting, had been shown by the progress of study to be both true. Such was the case with the rival theories, one of which represented molecules as constructed after the pattern of three or four types, while the other viewed them as containing complex groups called radicles. Opposition existed at one time between those who made use of atomic weights and those who employed equivalent weights; and the most important step that has of late been taken is the introduction of the notion of equivalence into the atomic theory. An inspection of the series of hydrogen compounds with chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon, will show that the atom of chlorine, which combines with a single atom of hydrogen, has a different value from the atoms of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon, which combine respectively with two, three, and four atoms of hydrogen. Hence, nitrogen and other elements of like equivalence are called trivalent or triads, while other elements are classed, according to the exponents of their equivalence in groups, as monads, dyads, pentads, etc. Kekulé still holds that an element can belong to only one of these groups; that nitrogen, for instance, is trivalent only, and that in sal-ammoniac, where it is combined with five other atoms, instead of being pentivalent, it is a molecular compound of two chemical compounds-ammonia and hydric chloride; and that the atoms of constituent molecules and the molecules themselves were held together by different forces, one being molecular, the other chemical. We have, however, no grounds for assuming a difference between chemical and physical forces, and Kekulé's theory is no longer tenable. The theory commonly in vogue is that atoms vary in value within certain narrow limits; that nitrogen, for instance, is either trivalent or pentivalent. Professor Williamson recognizes no limitation to atomic value; but he knows that many elements have atomic values greater than those commonly assumed. The character of the atoms often materially affects the result. Thus gold can not combine with more than three atoms of chlorine alone, but it can take up an additional atom of chlorine if supplied with an atom of sodium. In this way we get the common double chloride of gold and sodium, NaAuCl., in which the gold is pentivalent. We are not to consider the sodium as being here combined with the gold as such, but as combined with the whole group. Temperature, also, has an influence upon the atomic value of elements, a rise of temperature tending to diminish it.

Molecular Weight of Hydrofluoric Acid.— Professor J. W. Mallet has made some studies of the atomic weight of hydrofluoric acid, with a view to finding an explanation of some

peculiar differences in the behavior of fluorine in entering into combination with other elements. The analogies of fluorine with the halogens on the one hand, and with oxygen on the other hand, have often been remarked upon. The compounds of fluorine generally bear resemblance to compounds of chlorine, but some striking differences in the character of these compounds have also forced themselves upon the attention; and the tendency of the fluorides to the formation of double salts, with formulas analogous to those of oxygen compounds, and the formation of salts including both oxygen and fluorine, has suggested that some close natural relation may exist between these elements themselves. There has, therefore, been ground for questioning whether fluorine should be classed with chlorine among the monad elements, with the formula HF to represent hydrofluoric acid, and assigned an atomic weight of 19, or with oxygen among the dyads, with the formula H2F for hydrofluoric acid, and an atomic weight of 38. Professor Mallet's experiments bore a special reference to this question. The result was such as to justify the assumption that at the temperature of 30° centigrade the molecule of hydrofluoric-acid vapor should be represented, not as HF, but as H2F2, while at higher temperatures dissociation takes place, leading to the production of diatomic molecules of HF. The structure of the molecule of double weight, H2F2, may be regarded as resulting from fluorine behaving not only as a monad, but also as a triad, and acting in double atoms like those of nitrogen in the di-azotic compounds. In such a condition the element presents a pseudo-dyad character, and becomes capable of replacing oxygen and of manifesting the linking function of that element. This assumption, supported by the experimental evidence brought forward by Professor Mallet, may serve conveniently to explain the composition of a number of fluorine compounds, whose formulas are difficult to write in a satisfactory way if fluorine be considered exclusively monad.

Atomic Weight of Platinum.-The group of metals embracing osmium, iridium, and platinum has until recently exhibited a series of irregularities in that their atomic weights did not manifest those relations to each other which their properties, in connection with Meyer and Mendelejeff's theory of classification, indicated they should bear. Dr. K. Seubert, two years ago, undertook the revision of the atomic weight of iridium, and fixed it at 192-644, putting it below that of platinum. He has since fixed the atomic weight of platinum at 194-177, giving it the place above that of iridium and below that of gold, which the theory requires it should occupy, while the previous estimation of its atomic weight made it above that of gold. The ascending series, iridium, platinum, gold, is now, as to those three metals, agreeable to theory; but osmium still occupies an anomalous position, its re

ceived atomic weight, 1985, being above that of gold, while the theory requires that it should be below that of iridium.

Molecular Weights of Decipium and Samarium.-M. Delafontaine, in 1878, described an earth having a molecular weight of about 122, which he had obtained from samarskite, and which he called decipia, regarding it as an oxide of a new metal, decipium. He has continued his studies of this substance, and has been brought to regard it as a mixture of two oxides, one of them having a molecular weight of about 130, and the other a lower molecular weight. The former substance gives no absorption spectrum, while the second gives the spectrum which M. Delafontaine described in 1878 as that of decipia. M. Lecoq has also announced the discovery of a new metal in samarskite, corresponding with the second substance detected by M. Delafontaine, to which the latter proposes to give the name of samarium. The molecular weight of its oxide is believed to be less than 117. Samaria appears to be identical with the earth Y3, having a molecular weight of 115, which M. Marignac has found in samarskite, while that chemist's Ya, having a molecular weight of 120.5, may be supposed to be a mixture of decipia and terbia.

Atomic Weight of Aluminum.-Professor J. W. Mallet, considering that the estimation of the atomic weight of aluminum was resting on an insufficient basis of accurate experiment, has pursued, during three years, a course of experiments for the revision of the determination, in which he has kept in view the principles-1. That each process used should be as simple as possible, and should involve as little as possible of known liability to error; 2. That different and independent processes should be resorted to as the means of checking each other's results; 3. That each process should be carried out with quantities of material differing considerably from each other in successive experiments; 4. That only such other atomic weights should be involved as may be counted, among those already known, with the nearest approach to accuracy. Three series of experiments were conducted, of which the first series was based on the purification of ammonium alum; the second on the preparation and purification of aluminum bromide; and the third on the preparation and application of pure metallic aluminum. The mean result of the twenty-five experiments which were regarded as the more accurate of the thirty that were made, gives the atomic weight of aluminum as 27:02. This is believed by Professor Mallet to bear in favor of Prout's law, which assumes that all the atomic weights are multiples of that of hydrogen.

Atomic Weight of Cadmium.-Mr. Oliver W. Huntington, under the direction of Professor J. P. Cooke, of Harvard College, has made a revisionary determination of the atomic weight of cadmium. He used a pure bromide of cadmium, specially prepared for the pur