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ghans. His yoke was hard on the country around Herat. Treasure could only be raised by harsh exactions, and Ayoob's own imperious, jealous, and vindictive character was calculated to raise up many enemies. In March, an insurrection of the neighboring tribes, joined by mutineers from the army, Candahari and Herati soldiery, nearly put an end to his ambitious plans. His position in the country at large seemed, nevertheless, to be growing stronger. The prolonged occupation of Candahar by the British visibly injured the prospects of Abdurrahman by ranging the patriotic and religious sentiment of the country on Ayoob's side. The Ameer's rule extended only over Caboolistan, Balkh, and Badakshan, and was not exercised farther west than Gbazni.

After waiting until April for Abdurrahman to become strong enough to hold Candahar, the British authorities sent word to him to bring a force to succeed them. A deputation from Ayoob Khan asking that the city be resigned to him and his pretensions recognized, on the ground that the people were attached to his cause, was dismissed with a refusal. The Ameer dispatched a body of troops, who slowly made their way from Cabool through the unfriendly Durani country. On the 21st, after furnishing the Afghan troops with some artillery and small-arms, the last detachment of British soldiers marched out of Candahar, leaving the deputed governor of Abdurrahman in command.

The British did not, however, withdraw to their former boundary, but only to the valley of Pishin, where they remained, guarding the Khojak pass and garrisoning the city of Quetta, quietly looking on during the ensuing struggle between the two claimants for the Afghan throne. The Indian official world insisted upon holding on to this last, poor trophy of the conquest; and the army clique and Russophobists never ceased to cry for a return to the "forward" policy, for interference between the combatants, and the establishment of a British protectorate in Afghanistan.

After the evacuation of Candahar the Ameer increased his fighting strength, and posted troops on the Helmand to defend his acquisition. Three of Ayoob's cousins and generals advanced with a small force, hoping to incite the Durani chiefs to rise, but with little success. A skirmish near Girishk opened hostilities on the 30th of June. On the 11th another engagement took place, resulting in the dispersion of Ayoob's force. In July Ayoob advanced from Herat to the Helmand River with all his forces. Several days were gained by him in pretended negotiations for peace. Gholam Hyder, the commander of the Ameer's force on the Helmand, finally crossed the river to attack Ayoob Khan, but only to find that the wily prince had himself forded the Helmand and slipped in between him and Candahar. Gholam Hyder recrossed the river at Girishk, and caught up with Ayoob at Karez-i-Atta, six

miles nearer Candahar, encamped in a strong position on ascending ground. Gholam Hyder attacked him vigorously, and gained some advantage at first; but the desertion of a regiment of Ghilzais and his own bad generalship lost him the day. The Cabooli troops took to flight, and many of them came in and surrendered to Ayoob. The battle, which was fought July 27th, lasted only an hour; eighteen guns and a considerable treasure fell into the hands of Ayoob's general. The Ameer's Governor of Candahar and his staff fled, and Ayoob's forces quietly took possession of the city on the 30th. Gholam Hyder Khan retreated with the remnant of his army to Kelat-i-Ghilzai. Here, finding re-enforcements from Cabool, he made a stand. The Ameer's position improved from week to week. Dissensions broke out in Ayoob Khan's army, and many of the Cabooli soldiers who had joined him after the battle at Karez-iAtta redeserted to Gholam Hyder. The Ameer issued a proclamation to the people of Northern Afghanistan, announcing that he would take the field in person. Mahomed Jan, his former general-in-chief, whom he had long feared and mistrusted, he cast into prison with other suspected individuals. Both he and Ayoob Khan had been hampered in their movements by signs of treachery and disaffection in their capitals and among their troops.

The Duranis did not flock to Ayoob Khan's standard, as he had hoped, upon his appearance in Southern Afghanistan. Before the capture of Candahar had made him master of the country, but few partisans joined his ranks. Here, as at Herat, his rule was felt to be oppressive. His financial straits and military necessities compelled him to make requisitions for arms and supplies and to exact transport service, and his extortions of treasure acted like a blight on commercial traffic. The murder of a popular chief, and other events which excited tribal hatred and revenge, had estranged the Herati more than all his exactions, and were among the main causes of his future disasters. Race feeling, which is one of the deepest passions of the Afghan breast, was aroused in his favor among the Southern Afghans by the appeals made by Abdurrahman to the race pride of the Ghilzai nation in his energetic preparations for a final struggle with the Ghilzai leader of a Durani horde who disputed his throne. The Duranis of the south, who had held back apathetically at Ayoob Khan's first coming, passionately filled with the traditional jealousy of the Ghilzai race, now rallied vigorously around the banner of their national chief. Abdurrahman during his struggle with Ayoob Khan was freely provided with British silver. The liberal use of his abundant cash gave him a great advantage over Ayoob. Instead of drying up the fountains of commerce, and spreading distress and poverty in his path, his approach brought unexampled prosperity and comfort to every community which he visited.

Abdurrahman reached Kelat-i-Ghilzai on the

1st of August. Definite proposals for peace from Ayoob Khan were rejected, and the Ameer advanced to join battle with his rival on the road to Candahar. For many days the armies lay encamped opposite each other; and Abdurrahman offered battle daily, but could not draw out the enemy. The Ameer was then obliged to change his camp to a position nine miles to the west, in order to be near flour-mills. Ayoob took a position opposite in the village of Chilzina. Here the decisive battle was finally fought on the 22d of September, and was lost through the treachery and desertion of the Caboolis, who had gone over to Ayoob after the defeat of Gholam Hyder, and of the disaffected Herati soldiery. The encounter with Abdurrahman, for which Ayoob Khan had been so long preparing, would probably have resulted otherwise in the overthrow of the Ameer. In the battle of Chilzina Ayoob Khan occupied a position of superior strength, behind the ramparts, ditch, and buildings of the old city of Candahar, protected on the right by a rocky ridge. Ayoob's army was also more numerous. After three hours or so of fighting, the Cabooli and Herati regiments, which Ayoob Khan probably mistrusted and therefore kept in the rear, commenced to fire upon the Ghazi and Candahari men who formed the pretender's battle-front. This treacherous act broke the line, and soon the army was in full rout. Ayoob Khan and his confederate chiefs escaped to Herat, leaving his artillery, consisting of twenty-two guns, in the hands of the enemy.

After several severe repulses of the British, public opinion in England became outspoken against the further continuance of the war, and negotiations were entered into by the Liberal Government with the Boers, which resulted in the restoration of virtual independence. (See CAPE COLONY.)

At the biennial election held in Liberia on May 3d, Anthony W. Gardner was elected President, and Rev. A. F. Russell, Vice-President of the republic, the successful candidates receiving a majority in every county. This will be Mr. Gardner's third term. The contest is described as independent of party lines. The successful candidates have pledged themselves to the education of the masses, the incorporation of the native tribes into the body-politic, in favor of temperance, the honest settlement of foreign indebtedness, and the frugal administration of the Government.

A small native war arose for the British on the West Coast of Africa. A native, who styled himself King of the Denkera tribe, had taken refuge within the limits of the British protectorate of the Fantee and other tribes; but King Koffee, of Ashantee, claimed that the Denkeras were subjects of the Ashantees, and demanded that he be given up. As the British refused to comply with this request, King Koffee declared war in February. The affair was settled in May, after a short and decisive campaign, by the payment of a penalty of 2,000 ounces of gold, and an apology from King Koffee to Queen Victoria. At the final interview of the Ashantee embassadors with Sir Samuel Rowe, the Governor, the latter instructed them to inform the King that the British would not consent to the conclusion of any treaty with him so long as he permitted the practice of human sacrifice to continue.

The German traveler, Nachtigal, has made a computation of the surface and population of the countries and districts of the Continent of Africa, as follows in kilometres (23 kilometres = 1 square mile):

Abdurrahman did not follow up his victory, but returned to Cabool after sacking Candahar, which opened its gates to him without resistance, and pillaging the surrounding country, in revenge for their adherence to Ayoob's cause. Abdurrahman leisurely made his preparations to advance on Herat. Meanwhile Abdul Kudus Khan had set out with a small force from Cabool and was making his way toward Herat through Northern Afghanistan and Turkestan. He was joined by a large force of auxiliary volunteers from the local tribesmen, who were hostile to Ayoob. This formidable force menaced Herat from behind at the same time that Ayoob Morocco.. was obliged to draw his forces from the city to meet the army of Abdurrahman. After three engagements, the last one fought at Shaflan, thirty miles east of Herat, October 2, in all of which Abdul Kudus and his local allies were successful, Herat surrendered without further resistance on the 4th. Ayoob Khan, after the capture of his stronghold and capital, and his sole military base, prudently made his escape to Persia.

AFRICA. An important change in the map of Africa occurred during 1881. The Transvaal Republic, which had been annexed by the British in 1877, regained its independence and assumed the name of the South African Republic. A strong agitation against British rule was kept up in the annexed district, which finally resulted in a declaration of war by the Boers.

COUNTRY.

Algeria..
Tunis
Tripoli..
Desert of Sahara.
Egypt..
Soodan, Central.

Soodan, Western, and Upper Guinea.
Harar..

Central Africa north of the equator...
Central Africa south of the equator...
Portuguese possessions, eastern..
Orange Free State...

Portuguese possessions, western..

British South Africa..
Islands.....

Total..

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AKKAS, a dwarf race dwelling in the valley of the White Nile, in about the third degree of north latitude. Reports of dwarf peoples in equatorial Africa have been made by travelers in all ages. The pygmies of the an

cients were located by tradition in the distant parts of Upper Ethiopia. The Dokkos, another tribe of people of low stature, living in the southern part of Abyssinia, may be related to the Akkas. These are described by Schweinfurth as a race which never attain a greater height than five feet. Their lower face protrudes to a remarkable degree. Their hands and feet are small. They are very active in their habits, and use the bow and the lance with great skill in hunting the elephant. The country of the Akkas lies south of the Welle River, beyond Monbuttu-land and the country of the Niam-Niams (see "Geographical Progress and Discovery"). From recent accounts it appears that the stature of the Akkas has been somewhat understated, and that their average height is greater than that of the Hottentots. They are not warlike, and are in danger of extinction from the aggressions of their neighbors. Two Akka children who were brought to Europe by Miani have displayed a fair degree of intelligence.

ALABAMA. Some important measures were passed at the session of the Legislature held at the beginning of the year. A colored normal school was established at Tuskeegee. An act was passed providing for the incorporation of banks of discount and deposit. They are authorized to carry on the business of banking, by discounting bills and notes, receiving and paying out deposits, buying and selling gold and silver bullion, foreign coins and foreign and domestic bills of exchange and commercial securities, bonds and stocks, by lending money upon bonds, stocks, and personal security, and upon unincumbered real property, and by exercising such incidental powers, not in conflict with the laws of the State or of the United States, as are necessary to carry on its business. The capital stock may be any sum not less than fifty thousand or more than five hundred thousand dollars.

Any one who carries about his person a bowie-knife, or any other knife or instrument of like kind or description, or a pistol, or firearms of any other kind or description, or any air-gun, must be fined on conviction not less than fifty nor more than five hundred dollars, and may also be imprisoned in the county jail, or sentenced to hard labor for the county for not more than six months: provided, that evidence that the defendant has good reason to apprehend an attack may be admitted in the mitigation of the punishment or in justification of the offense.

The sum of one hundred thousand dollars was appropriated for the construction of an additional building for the accommodation of the insane at Tuscaloosa.

The rate of the State tax was fixed at six and one half tenths of one per centum.

It was declared by the Legislature that "the main track of every railroad in this State is a public highway, over which all persons have equal rights of transportation for passengers

and freights, on the payment of just compensation to the owner of the railroad for such transportation; and any person or corporation engaged in the business of transporting passengers or freights over any railroad in this State, who shall exact and receive for any such transportation more than just compensation for the services rendered, or demands more than the rates specified in any bill of lading issued by such person or corporation, or who for his or its advantage or for the advantage of any connecting line, or of any person or locality, shall make any unjust discrimination in transportation against any individual, locality, or corporation, shall be guilty of extortion; and in every case it shall be for the jury to determine, from all the evidence, whether more than just compensation was exacted and received, or whether any such discrimination in transportation which may be established by the evidence against the individual, locality, or corporation, as the case may be, was made for the benefit or advantage of the person or corporation operating such railroad, or of any person or locality: provided, that nothing in this act shall be construed to prevent contracts for special rates for the purpose of developing any industrial enterprise, or to prevent the execution of any such contract now existing."

In all suits for extortion, the plaintiff may recover twice the amount of damages sustained, and also a reasonable fee for his counsel. The party proved guilty of the extortion may be fined not less than ten or more than five hundred dollars. It was also provided that a board of railroad commissioners should be established, whose duty it should be to consider and carefully revise all tariffs of charges for transportation submitted to the commission by any person or corporation owning or operating a railroad in this State; and if, in the judgment of the commission, any such charge is more than just compensation for the service for which it is proposed to be made, or if any such charges amount to unjust discrimination against any person, locality, or corporation, the commission shall notify the party submitting the same of the changes necessary to reduce the rate of charges to just compensation, and to avoid unjust discrimination; when such changes are made by the party submitting the tariff, or when none are deemed proper and expedient, the members of the commission shall append a certificate of its approval to such tariff of charges.

It was further made the duty of the commissioners to hear all complaints made by any person against any such tariff of rates so approved, on the ground that the same, in any respect, is for more than just compensation, or that such charges, or any of them, amount to, or operate so as to effect unjust discrimination; such complaint must be in writing, and specify the items in the tariff against which complaint is made; and if it appears to the commission that there may be justice in the complaint, or

that the matter ought to be investigated, the commission shall forthwith furnish to the person or corporation operating the railroad a copy of the complaint, together with notice that, at a time and place stated in the notice, the tariff as to said items will be revised by the commission; and at such time and place it shall be the duty of the commission to hear the parties to the controversy or by counsel, and such evidence as may be offered, oral or in writing, and may examine witnesses on oath, conforming to the mode of proceedings, as nearly as may be convenient, required of arbitrators, giving such time and latitude to each side, and regulating the opening and conclusion of any argument, as the commission may consider best adapted to arrive at the truth; and when the hearing is concluded, the commission shall give notice of any changes deemed proper by them to be made, to the person or corporation operating the railroad.

The serious nature of the litigation against railroads, under a complaint of extortion, is such that those best informed on the subject admit that, if the roads were subject to it unrestrained, it would effectually destroy the value of their property. The act, therefore, seeks to provide a proper measure of protection to the railroads by authorizing them to submit their tariff's to the commission, and when such tariffs have been conformed to what, in the judgment of the commission, is the measure of just compensation, without unjust discrimination, the commission shall approve them. This approval by the commission does not make the tariff thus approved absolutely binding, either on the public or the railroads; but it so far protects the railroads as to relieve them while acting under such approved tariff from all liability except for actual damage, and gives them the right, if successful in a suit for extortion in respect to such charges, to recover a lawyer's fee from the plaintiff, and the approval of the commission is prima facie evidence in behalf of the railroad that the tariff is not extortionate.

The object and effect of these provisions are to leave it to a jury to determine in the last resort what is just between the people and the railroads. The railroads, in so far as they are private property, are entitled to the same measure of protection precisely as other property; and, in so far as they are public highways, the right of the public to use them is equally sacred. These respective rights, of the success of the railroad on the one hand, and of the public on the other, meet at just compensation, without unjust discrimination, for the service rendered in transportation. Whenever the railroads are required to transfer freight or passengers for less than just compensation, the rights of the owners of the railroads are violated; and, on the other hand, when the railroads charge more than just compensation, or make any unjust discrimination in transportation, they trespass upon the rights of the public. The

trouble is, to determine what is just compensation or unjust discrimination.

The Legislature has the power to determine this matter by positive statute, as is done in the case of mills grinding for toll, ferries, tollbridges, turnpikes, and the like; but the variations in the measure of just compensation, and not unjust discrimination, in railroad transportation, render the exercise of this power of fixing rates by positive statute impracticable. It was made the duty of county health boards to supervise the public health, and through their health officer to collect full vital statistics of their county.

A tramp was defined to be any person who goes from place to place or house to house, begging or demanding food, raiment, lodging, or other thing of value, without employment or other visible means of support. It was further provided that the act of begging, or vagrancy, by any person having no known residence within this State, shall be prima facie evidence that the person committing the same is a tramp.

As a punishment, or rather to exclude them from the State, it was provided that any person convicted of being a tramp shall be fined for the first offense not less than fifty nor more than two hundred dollars, and shall be sentenced to hard labor for the county for not less than six nor more than twelve months, and, on a second conviction for such offense, shall be fined not less than one hundred nor more than five hundred dollars, and sentenced to hard labor for the county not less than one nor more than two years; and for each subsequent conviction shall be fined and sentenced as for the second conviction.

The act for the apportionment of representatives made a small change in only four counties, which merely gained or lost a member. The number of representatives is one hundred.

There were 996 bills introduced in the House, of which 221 became laws, and one was vetoed by the Governor.

In the Senate there were about 460 bills and petitions introduced, 129 of which became laws.

It will be seen that there were some 1,456 bills introduced, and only 350, or not quite one fourth, were enacted into laws. Some failed for want of time to consider them, while others were defeated in one branch or the other of the Legislature.

Of the laws passed, forty-four are general, fifty-four are amendments of the Code of 1876, and the remainder are local or special in their nature, including sixty acts for the prevention or regulation of the sale of spirituous liquors. The adjournment took place early in the month of March.

The latest report of the condition of the Educational Department is for 1880. The total revenue for the year was $397,465.35-the largest items being the annual appropriation of

$130,000, the poll-tax retained by the counties for the townships and race paying it, $124,597.08, and interest on the sixteenth-section fund, $105,082.66. The principal apportionments of the fund were, for the normal schools, $13,500; to school districts, $258,099.52, and of course the net poll-tax, as above indicated. Teachers of white schools got $203,681.46; of colored schools, $158,911.13; and county superintendents got $11,871.92. The white Normal School at Florence received $7,500; the colored Normal at Marion, $4,000; and the colored Normal at Huntsville, $2,000. Each one of those schools is represented as doing well, having made considerable improvements over former years. The white Normal at Florence reports on its catalogue for the year 201 pupils, and there has not been a case of serious sickness during the entire year, which closed under circumstances gratifying to the friends of the institution. Indeed, such a degree of prosperity and popularity has it attained that it was found necessary to enlarge the accommodations for an increased number of pupils. Connected with the institution, eight teachers are reported. While music is taught as in other institutions, to those who desire to take lessons, the whole school is required to join the vocal music class, and the board expresses satisfaction at the pleasing effect of this feature of the institution. The Florence Normal School, present and prospective, has never been in so prosperous and pleasant estate. There are 100 of its old pupils engaged in teaching in the State, and many more are ready and waiting.

The Lincoln Normal University, at Marion, is reported to be in a flourishing condition. The number of pupils was 140-76 females and 64 males. Such has been the increase in the number of pupils, that an enlargement of the building has become an absolute necessity. The report shows five teachers connected with the school.

The Huntsville Normal School (colored) is also reported in a flourishing condition, the average attendance of pupils being larger than that of any previous year. Professor William II. Council, one of the most intelligent men of his race in the State, is the principal of this school. He has three assistant teachers. The average paid teachers, per month, was- -white, $20.96; colored, $23.62; the average of pupils to teacher was-whites, 33; colored, 46. The number of white schools was 3,085, colored 1,512-total, 4,597 Number of white male teachers, 1,864; number of white female, 1,230-total, 3,094. Colored teachers, male, 1,080; colored female, 441-total colored, 1,521. The total number of teachers was 4,615. Reading, writing, and spelling were the principal branches taught.

The total school population was, white, 217,320; colored, 170,449-total, 387,769. Number of enrolled whites, 107,483; colored, 72,007total, 179,490. Average attendance of white was 67,794; colored, 50,184. Average length of white schools in days, 83; colored, 67; the

general average for white and black combined being 80 days.

The State Penitentiary, at the latest report, contained 540 convicts, of whom only 44 are kept within the walls.

The convicts for the most part are hired to miners and farmers, most of them at $5 per month. These are the first-class hands. There is a second class that bring only $2.50, and a few who are let for their "victuals and clothes." The report shows, however, that as fast as the $5 contracts expire new ones are made at $8 per month. It is worth noting here that the sum of $45,000 has been paid into the State Treasury during the two years. Within the five years, under the present system, $81,000 have been paid into the Treasury, $36,000 of State bonds canceled, besides building the Wetumpka Branch Railroad, worth $12,921.20, and making repairs and improvements on buildings and grounds worth $12,200. Under the new contracts, the income to the State will be largely increased. Under the old law, it cost per capita about $59 for transporting convicts to the penitentiary; now it costs about $1.70.

Out of the 540 convicts, there is but one solitary white woman. This lone one is thirtyfive years old, and was sentenced to a term of three years, for adultery.

The number of white male convicts is only 69. The colored male convicts are 450, and colored females 20. There are some children among the colored convicts, the youngest being ten years, and is sentenced to seven years for manslaughter. There is one twelve, one thirteen, one fourteen, and quite a number ranging from fourteen to twenty. The oldest convict is seventy-five; he is in for manslaughter, for five years. There is one seventytwo years old, and is in for two years for assault with intent to murder. The life-sentences are 51. The table of previous occupations of convicts shows 489 laborers, 9 cooks, 8 carpenters, 7 house-servants, 6 farmers, 3 blacksmiths, 2 engineers, 2 shoemakers, 1 hotel-keeper, 1 baker, 1 machinist, 1 jeweler, 1 brick-mason, 1 teamster, 1 sailor, 1 musician, 1 dentist, 1 painter, 1 school-master, 1 horse-trainer, 1 timber-worker, and only 1 doctor. The doctor is in for life, for murder. The table of nativity shows: Alabama, 338; Georgia, 44; and the balance scattered, 3 being put down to England, 2 to Germany, and 1 each to Ireland, Switzerland, and Canada. The crime which is most largely represented is burglary. There are 170 burglars. Grand larceny and murder stand next on the list, there being 106 names under each of these heads. In former times horse-stealing showed the largest number of convicts, but that does not seem so popular a business as formerly, there being only one horse-thief. There are quite a number for rape, and a few for arson, and nearly every other crime has one or more representatives. In the tables touching the conduct of the sev

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