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MERCHANTS' MAGAZINE

AND

COMMERCIAL REVIEW.

OCTOBER, 1848.

Art. I.-THE HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES OF ANCIENT COMMERCE.

LECTURE III.

THE COMMERCE OF TYRE AND CARTHAGE.

ORIGIN OF NAVIGATION-RISE OF TYRE AND CARTHAGE-MARITIME POWER-INFLUENCE OF NAVIGATION ON COMMERCE-ADVANTAGES OF AN INSULAR SITUATION-SHIPS OF THE ANCIENTS-LONG VOYAGESCARRYING TRADE-MANUFACTURES-WEAVING-DYEING-POTTERY-TANNING-WORKING OF METALS -COLONIES COLONIAL TRADE-RATE OF WAGES-EMIGRATION-ACCUMULATION OF CAPITALCREDIT BANKING-BOTTOMRY-PARTNERSHIPS-JOINT STOCK COMPANIES-COMMERCIAL CHARACTER OF THE CARTHAGINIANS.

In my first Lecture I laid down some of the elementary principles of commercial science. We stated that the commerce of a country depend. ed on its productions-on its consumption-on its position-on its means of communication—on the state of its arts and sciences-on the nature of its laws, and on the genius and character of the people. We endeavored to illustrate these propositions by facts taken from the history of Ancient Egypt. In my last Lecture we traced the progress of society from an uncivilized to a commercial state; we viewed the establishment of the right of private property-the administration of justice-the founding of cities-the appointment of markets and fairs-and the introduction of money and bankers. These principles we endeavored to illustrate by facts taken from the history of Ancient Greece. We now view society arrived at a state of maturity. Property is respected-the laws are enforced-the arts and sciences are cultivated-the necessaries of life are acquired a taste for luxury has arisen-and the people are looking about in quest of the means to enrich themselves with those productions which their own soil and climate cannot supply.

If we wish to trace the means by which these desires are gratified, how can we do better than to investigate the history of Tyre and of Carthage? The country called Phoenicia was situated on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, to the north-west of Canaan, and to the south-west of Syria. The territory was but small, and, like most other ancient countries, was

at first subdivided into several independent states. The two largest cities were Tyre and Sidon. Old Tyre was situated on the land, and withstood a siege for thirteen years by Nebuchadnezzar. Ultimately it was taken; but the Tyrians having the command of the sea, removed themselves, their families, and their property, before Nebuchadnezzar could take possession of the place. The Tyrians afterwards returned, and built New Tyre, which was at a little distance from the land, and was founded on a rock about three miles in circumference. This new city was besieged by Alexander the Great, and taken, with great slaughter, after a siege of seven months. Tyre is thus described in the Holy Scriptures :-" A joy. ous city, whose antiquity is of ancient days, whose merchants are princes, whose traffickers are the honorable of the earth."—"Tyrus did build herself a stronghold, and heaped up silver as the dust, and fine gold as the mire of the street. When the waves went forth out of the seas, thou filledst many people; thou didst enrich the kings of the earth with the multitude of thy riches and of thy merchandise." Tyre carried on a considerable traffic with the adjacent country of Judea. Solomon, king of Israel, made a treaty with Hiram, king of Tyre, by virtue of which the Tyrians hewed timber in the forests of Lebanon, and brought it down in fleets to Joppa, from whence it was carried to Jerusalem, to construct the Temple, and other public buildings, and in return Solomon supplied Hiram annually with wheat and barley, and wine and oil, all of which Judea. produced in abundance. Afterwards, when Solomon fitted out a fleet at Eziongeber to go to Tarshish, Hiram furnished him with sailors, as the Tyrians understood maritime affairs much better than the Israelites. In a subsequent period, after the division of the ten tribes, Ahab, the king of Israel, married Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, king of Sidon, and introduced the worship of Baal, the god of the Sidonians; and afterwards the worship of the same idol was introduced by her daughter, Athaliah, into the kingdom of Judah. At a still later period in the Jewish history, we find the Tyrians brought fish, and all manner of wares to Jerusalem, and were threatened with punishment by Nehemiah for exposing them for sale on the Sabbath day.

The Tyrians were remarkable for their knowledge of navigation, their skill in manufactures, and the extent of their commerce. The most ample account we have of the commerce of ancient Tyre is contained in the 27th chapter of the Prophecy of Ezekiel. In the prosecution of their commerce they found it useful to establish colonies for conducting their trade with those countries in which the colonists were settled. They are said to have planted above forty colonies on different parts of the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. In point of government these colonies, like those of Greece, were independent of the mother country, and had the entire management of their own affairs. Among these colonies, the most celebrated is Carthage.

Carthage stood on the coast of Africa, at about half way from Phonicia to the Straits of Cadiz. It was situated on a peninsula, about fortyfive miles in circumference, which joined the main continent by a neck of land about three miles across. The city, in the zenith of its greatness, was about twenty-three miles in circumference, and contained a population of about 700,000 people. At this time it held dominion over all the coasts of Africa, a territory above 1,400 miles in length, and containing three hundred cities; it also possessed the greater part of Spain and Sicily, and

all the islands in the Mediterranean Sea to the Strait of Sicily. This extensive empire was not acquired so much by conquest as by commerce and colonization. The government, like that of most ancient States, was republican; but what is remarkable, and what distinguishes it from other ancient republics is, that during the whole six hundred years of its exist. ence, there was no instance of a civil war. Ancient writers attribute this to the excellency of the Carthaginian political constitution, but it was probably owing to the good sense and commercial habits of the people.

The Carthaginians excelled in the arts and sciences, but all the monuments of their greatness were destroyed by the Romans. We have no account of the Carthaginians except from Greek and Roman writers, the latter of whom were their enemies and destroyers. Had we as minute

an account of the rise and progress of Carthage, as we have of Greece and of Rome, it would probably form the most useful branch of ancient history.

The following account is given of their trade :-"The commodities they supplied other nations with in great abundance seem to have been corn, and fruits of all kinds, divers sorts of provisions, and high sauces, wax, honey, oil, the skins of wild beasts, &c., all the natural produce of their own territories. Their staple manufactures were utensils, toys, cables, made of the shrub Spartum, a kind of broom, all kinds of naval stores, and the color from them called Punic, the preparation of which seems to have been peculiar to them. From Egypt they fetched fine flax, paper, &c.; from the coasts of the Red Sea, spices, frankincense, perfumes, gold, pearls, and precious stones. From Syria and Phoenicia, purple, scarlet, with stuff tapestry, costly furniture; and from the western parts of the world, in return for the commodities carried thither, they brought back iron, tin, lead, copper, &c. So famous was Carthage for its artificers, that any singular invention or exquisite piece of workmanship, seems to have been called Punic even by the Romans. Thus the Punic beds or couches, the Punic windows, the Punic wine-presses, the Punic lanterns, were esteemed the more neat and elegant by that people."

The history of Carthage, even imperfect as it is, seems adapted to teach us those means by which nations arrive at an extensive commerce. These means will form the topics of the present Lecture. I observe, then— First. Commerce is extended by means of maritime power.

Secondly. Commerce is extended by means of the establishment of manufactures,

Thirdly. Commerce is extended by the planting of colonies. Fourthly. Commerce is extended by the accumulation of capital. These will form the four heads of my Lecture. I will begin with the first :

I. Commerce is extended by means of maritime power.

In warm climates the necessity of cleanliness is so great, that bathing in water was in almost all countries enjoined as a religious duty. From bathing in water, and from seeing other animals, man would soon acquire the art of swimming. At the same time he would occasionally see branches of trees broken down by the wind, carried along the current, and this would suggest to him the idea of making a canoe or boat by cutting out a hollow in the trunk of a tree. Hence we find that the art of navigation commenced in warm countries. When the art of constructing boats was once discovered, fresh improvements would necessarily be

introduced as mankind improved in the arts and sciences, and as they had occasion to make longer voyages. From the construction of vessels adapted only to carry themselves, mankind would proceed to the construction of vessels adapted to carry cargoes of commodities. Hence navigation would be employed as a means of trade. It would soon be found that very heavy bodies could be floated down a river in less time and at a less expense than it could be conveyed by land; trade would extend, and shipbuilding and navigation would improve. Those families of mankind who resided on the sea-coasts would become habituated to a maritime life, and the sea would be regarded as a source of wealth and power.

Navigation has a great influence on commerce. Commerce consists in an exchange of the superabundant productions of different countries. But two countries situated near to each other, having the same climate and the same soil, will produce nearly the same kind of commodities, and but little commerce may take place between them; while countries situated at a distance from each other, and in different climates, will produce very different commodities, and here is the foundation of an extended commerce. But commerce cannot very well be carried on between two distant countries by land. There would be great delay, and great expense, and great liability to interruption or robbery from the inhabitants of the lands through which you pass. All these inconveniences are obviated by means of a sea voyage. The transportation of goods is effected with less expense, in less time, and is less liable to interruption. In consequence of these facilities, the goods imported or exported can be sold at a cheaper rate. This tends to increase the demand for them, and commerce is thus more widely extended.

In most cases, an island presents greater advantages for commerce than a country situated on a continent. In proportion to its size, an island has a larger extent of sea-coast than any continental country can have. The climate is usually milder and more even, so that the operations of commerce are not disturbed by the seasons. The sea is a natural fortifi cation, so that there is less danger of an invasion from a foreign enemy, and a less proportion of the population are required to be enlisted in the army. And, as all commerce with other nations is necessarily carried on by sea, the inhabitants naturally acquire maritime habits; ship-building and navigation are more generally studied, and the people have more skill and courage in maritime warfare. In ancient history, the islands of Crete, Rhodes, and Cyprus were celebrated for their commerce.

Islands have also the advantage of being able to carry on the trade between the several provinces by sea. What in other countries is an inland trade, and is conducted by means of roads and canals, is, in islands, a coasting trade. An interchange of commodities between the different parts of the country is effected, by means of shipping, in less time and at a less expense.

The vessels of the ancients were different from those of modern times. The Grecian seas were land-locked, filled with small islands, and subject to violent storms and frequent calms; hence sails were not generally used. Their ships were rowed by oars, and in sailing, the mariners kept near to the coasts. Ships of war were called long ships-those of burden were called round ships. The ships of the Phoenicians being adapted for commerce, were broader and deeper than those intended for war. In the time of Homer, hempen cordage seems to have been unknown; leathern

thongs were used instead; and the ships had only one mast, and that a moveable one. The greatest number of men on board any one ship was one hundred and twenty. Navigation was in its infancy; but the princi. pal constellations had been observed, and by means of these the Greeks had navigated as far as Cyprus, Phoenicia, and Egypt.

This was

Ships had usually several banks of oars rising one above another, in the manner of stairs. On going on board a ship, you would first step on the side. This was the first bank of oars. Here the rowers had short oars. The next step was higher, and farther from the sea. the second bank of oars. Here the rowers had longer oars. The next step was the third bank of oars. Here the rowers had still longer oars, and, consequently, the work was harder, and the men had higher pay. Some of the ancient ships had two rudders on each side-afterwards they had a rudder at each end; but at length they had a rudder only in the stern, and the prow or bow of the ship became ornamented with a figure. head. The ships of war were not adapted for carrying any cargo; the chief object was swiftness in rowing. The men could never sleep, nor even conveniently eat on board. In their naval expeditions they kept close to the shore, and landed to take their meals, as stage-coaches stop for the passengers to take their dinner. When about to engage, they took down their sail, and depended entirely on their oars, as they could then advance or retreat, according to circumstances. The ships of war being long and narrow, and crowded with men, could not bear up against a high wind; but the ships of burden, or the round ships, as they were called, were adapted for the wind; they were worked by fewer hands, and fit for long voyages. The principal vessels used at first, were triremes, or ships with three banks of oars; but the Phoenicians or the Carthaginians constructed vessels of four and even five banks of oars; vessels built for stateliness and show had sometimes a greater number. Ships of war had, usually, a beak of wood covered with brass placed on their prows, for the purpose of annoying the ships of the enemy.

The ships of Tyre are thus described by the Prophet Ezekiel:-"They have made all thy ship boards of fir-trees of Senir; they have taken ce. dars from Lebanon to make masts for thee. Of the oaks of Bashan have

they made thine oars. The company of the Ashurites have made thy benches of ivory, brought out of the isles of Chittim. Fine linen, with broidered work from Egypt, was that which thou spreadest forth to be thy sail-blue and purple from the isles of Elishah was that which covered thee. The inhabitants of Zidon and Arpad were thy mariners-thy wise men, O Tyre, that were in thee, were thy pilots."

The Greeks confined their navigation entirely to their own seas. Even Sicily was, for many ages, the land of fable and monsters with which they were utterly unacquainted. But the Phoenicians extended their voy. ages throughout the whole of the Mediterranean; they passed through the Straits of Gibraltar, and visited the coasts of Britain. These voyages required ships of a larger size, and also a superior knowledge of navigation. It seemed, however, that whenever they could they kept near to the shore. You are aware that in the Mediterranean Sea there are no tides, but a current is always running into the German Ocean. On passing into the ocean, a different kind of navigation might become necessary. A trade that will pay the expense of a long voyage must be a profitable one, as there must be a greater outlay of capital in the equipment, and a

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