of which the arcades successively diminish in space, and increase in number. The first range of arches has 6 openings, S3 toises in length, and 10 toises and 2 feet high; the second range has 11 arches of the same height, but 133 toises, 2 feet in length; and the third range has 35 arches, on a much smaller scale, and this was the canal or aqueduct. There are many other Roman remains in different parts of France, but these near Nimes are by far the most interesting. Rousseau thus describes his own sensations on beholding the Pont du Gard. "I came," says he, "prepared to behold a monument worthy of the hands which had reared it. For the first time in my life, the reality surpassed my expectations, and it belonged only to the Romans to produce this effect. The aspect of this simple and noble work struck me the more, as it is in the midst of the desert, in which silence and solitude render the object more striking, and admiration more lively. One asks himself, what force can have transported these enormous stones so far from any quarry, and brought together the strength of arm of thousands of men, where there is not one man now? I went over the three stories of this superb edifice with a sentiment of respect which made me almost fear to tread it; the echoes of my footsteps beneath its immense vaults seemed as if I heard the strong voice of those masters of the world, who had built it."

28. History. France was originally inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic tribe. Julius Cesar

subdued them, and the country became a Roman province The Franks, a people of Germany, invaded Gaul in the 5th century and Clovis, their king, may be considered as properly the first sovereign of France. His descendants are called Merovingians, from Merovius, one of the ancient sovereigns. This race of kings became extinct in 754 ; when Pepin the Short, maire of the Palace, became king. This second race of sovereigns are called Carlovingians, from Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, son and successor of Pepin, who became not only sole monarch of France, but Emperor of the West, and was crowned by the Pope at Rome.

The Carlovingian dynasty ended in 987, by the accession of Hugh Capet, Duke of France, to the throne. The houses of Valois, Bourbon, and Orleans, which have subsequently reigned in France, are different branches of the Capetian stock.

The Franks were a free people; and the feudal system was established under Hugh Capet. The early wars with the English generally resulted to the disadvantage of the French; and Henry the Fifth of England, so far subjugated the country as to win for his successors the title of king of France. In the beginning of the 16th century, however,

*Louis, the name borne by so many of the French sovereigns, is a corruption of Clovis.

the power of France was developed, and her influence upon the affairs of Europe began to display itself in the conquest of Italy by Charles the Eighth. From this period, the kingdom gained power and ascendancy in the political system of Europe. Louis the Fourteenth maintained great armies, and carried on wars for the amusement of the ladies of his court. Coalitions arose against him, and the power of France was crippled for half a century. Louis the Sixteenth espoused the cause of American Independence, and introduced liberal notions of government among his people. The finances became embarrassed, all ordinary methods of retrieving them were found ineffectual, and the States General, or ancient assembly of the representatives of the people, were summoned. From discussing fiscal affairs, they passed to debates upon the principles of government, and the French Revolution began.

A new era commenced, marked by a political fanaticism, of which history affords no other example, and by crimes, the recital of which fills the mind with horror. Louis the Sixteenth, and his wife Marie Antoinette, fell upon the scaffold, and France was governed by a few persons, who established the most sanguinary despotism, under the name of liberty. A crusade against revolutionary France was raised among the powers of Europe; but though anarchy reigned within, France repelled foreign armies, while the different parties in the National Convention proscribed, banished, and massacred each other. The government of the Directory succeeded, but was overthrown by Bonaparte, who became consul of the French Republic. He put an end to factions, added new glory to the national arms, closed the gulf of the revolution, and gave a short peace to France.

Louis XVI. Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI. Louis XVIII.

In 1804, the Consul converted his laurels into an imperial diadem. Wars and coalitions against him only served to increase his power, and add territories to the French empire. Napoleon ruled over the greatest part of Europe. When Consul, he changed kingdoms into republics. When Emperor, republics were changed into kingdoms. He founded monarchies in Germany; he gave crowns to his generals. Twice he saw the crown of Prussia at his feet without seizing it, but lavished the best blood and treasure of the empire to place his brother on the throne of Spain. In 1812, he marched with an army of 400,000 men into Russia,

and reached the ancient capital of the Czars, only to be a witness of its conflagration. A severe winter destroyed his whole army; and the man, who shortly before, had the most powerful host in the world at his disposal, beheld himself in a paltry sledge, fleeing obscurely homeward across the frozen deserts of Poland. Yet never was the genius of this extraordinary A few months saw him person more strikingly manifested than in his unexampled reverses.

again at the head of 300,000 men, and though abandoned by his allies on the field of battle, he made a glorious resistance against the combined efforts of Europe. His capital was occupied by the enemy in March, 1814, and he abdicated the crown, and retired to Elba..

The Bourbons, in the person of Louis the Eighteenth, returned to the throne, from which the revolution had expelled them, but the disgrace of a foreign occupation wounded the national pride. Napoleon availed himself of the general discontent, and landed at Frejus on the 1st of March, 1815. The sight of his face drove everything that was Bourbon out of the country, and he entered Paris at the head of the troops sent to take him prisoner. He levied an army

for the national defence, gained the victory of Ligny, and was defeated the next day at Waterloo. He again abdicated, threw himself upon the generosity of the English, and died a prisoner and an exile, at St. Helena, in 1821.

After the second restoration, France had need of repose, and the Bourbon dynasty, although twice forced upon the people at the point of the bayonet, might, with wisdom and moderation, have kept upon the throne for many years; but Charles the Tenth was so foolhardy as to attempt the restoration of absolutism. He annihilated the charter by a stroke of his pen; the people rose in insurrection, and fought his troops in the streets of Paris. A three days' battle ended in the overthrow of the king, on the 30th of July, 1830. France is now a republic in all but the name. The king rules by the will of the people. Hereditary nobility is abolished, and hereditary monarchy may soon share the same fate.

CHAPTER LXXVI. REPUBLIC OF ANDORRA.

This little state is situated on the southern declivity of the Pyrenees, between Catalonia, in Spain, and the department of Arriege, in France. The population of the republic is 15,400, occupying 34 villages, and 190 square miles of territory. The capital, Andorra, has 2,000 inhabitants. Iron and wood are the principal productions. The government is administered by a council, over which presides a syndic; two judges, one appointed by the king of France, and the other by the bishop of Urgel, in Spain, preside over the administration of justice in the retired and peaceful valley of Andorra.

1. Boundaries and Extent. Spain is bounded north by the Bay of Biscay and France, east and south by the Mediterranean and the Straits of Gibraltar, and west by Portugal and the Atlantic. It extends from 35° 57' to 43° 44' N. latitude, and from 3° 20′ E. to 9° 40′ W. longitude. Its greatest length, from east to west, is 640 miles, and its breadth 530, and it contains 183,000 square miles.

2. Mountains. The Pyrenees separate this kingdom from France, and run east and west, from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, skirting the whole southern shore of the bay of Biscay. In common language, the name of Pyrenees is applied only to that part of the range between France and Spain; the western portions are known by the appellations of the Mountains of Biscay, the Sierra of Asturias, the Mountains of Mondonedo, Santillana, and Vindho. They were known to the ancients by the name of the Cantabrian Mountains. This range is, in some parts, 120 miles in breadth. The eastern peak of the Maladetta, the loftiest summit, rises to the height of 11,441 feet. On the south, the Pyrenees have a sterile appearance; but their northern sides are less precipitous, and afford many woods and pastures. Their highest summits are capped with perpetual snow. The level country on the French side is much lower than on the side of Spain. The most important defiles through these mountains, leading from France to Spain, are from St. Jean de Luz to Irun; the pass of Roncesvalles, and the pass near the Mediterranean, from Perpignan to Barcelona.

Proceeding south from these mountains, we come to a second range branching off irregularly from the Pyrenees, first southeasterly, and then southwesterly. This is called the Iberian Chain, and, as it approaches toward Portugal, takes the name of Monte Gata. It divides Old from New Castile, and bears, in different parts, the names of Guadarrama, Urbia, Oca, Moncago, &c. Nearly parallel to the southern part of this, is another range, called the Sierra de Guadalupe, in the north termed the Mountains of Toledo. Still further south is the Sierra Morena, or Brown Mountain, which, in the time of the Saracen dominion, was the boundary between Moorish and Christian Spain. The most southerly range is the Sierra Nevada, or snowy ridge, which skirts the Mediterranean. These are the highest mountains in Spain. The Cumbre de Mulahacen, their loftiest point, rises to the height of 11,698 feet. The high summits are covered the whole year with snow and ice, and may be seen from the distant coast of Africa. On the other mountains of Spain, the snow seldom lies longer than a few months. Many of them are entirely barren, and exhibit nothing but a naked assemblage of crags thrown together in the most picturesque manner. Some are covered with a scanty crop of grass and brushwood, and others are clothed with magnificent forests. Firs, oaks, and cork-trees grow in the higher regions. Chestnuts, tamarisks, pines, and birches clothe their bases.

The Mountain of Montserrat, is a detached eminence of the eastern Pyrenees, about 30 miles northwest of Barcelona. It consists of a cluster of sharp peaks, rising to the height of 3,500 feet, and always capped with clouds. The whole mountain is 24 miles in circumference. There are 14 hermitages upon different parts of these heights, and about half way up, is a magnificent convent of Benedictines. The scenery, in every part of this remarkable eminence, is strikingly bold and romantic.

3. Valleys. The great valleys of this country, are traversed by the 5 principal rivers, described under the next head; their general outlines may be understood, from the preceding description of the mountain ranges, which mark their limits.

4. Rivers. The Tajo, or Tagus, rises in the Sierra de Albarracin, in Arragon, and flows west, between the Iberian chain of mountains and the Sierra de Guadalupe, through Portugal, into the Atlantic. It is a large river, with steep banks and a rapid current; but is not navigable, on account of its rocks and shallows. The Guadiana rises in La Mancha, and flows southwesterly, between the mountains of Guadalupe and the Sierre Morena, to the Atlantic, intersecting the southern part of Portugal, and, at its mouth, forming the boundary between the two kingdoms. It is navigable for 45 miles from its mouth. The Guadalquivir flows between the Sierra Morena and the Sierra Nevada, southwesterly, to the sea. It is a beautiful stream, and is navigable in the lower part of its course. In the north of Spain, is the Duero, flowing west, through Portugal, into the Atlantic. The Ebro rises among the mountains in the north, and runs southeasterly into the Mediterranean; its mouth is shallow and sandy. The Guadalaviar and Xucar, are smaller streams, running in the same direction. Most of the rivers of Spain have shallow and stony beds, and dry up in summer to such a degree, as to be nearly useless for navigation.

5. Islands. The Balearic Islands are a group in the Mediterranean, consisting of Majorca, Minorca, Ivica, and Fromentera, with some smaller ones. Majorca, the largest, is about 100 miles from the coast. It is 40 miles in extent, each way, and is mountainous.

Minorca pos

sesses the valuable harbor of Port Mahon. These islands have generally a good soil, and produce oranges, olives, wine, &c., and they have 240,000 inhabitants.

6. Coasts. The shores are generally bold, and are furnished with many safe and commodious harbors, but there are no very large bays, or gulfs.