The three thousand white teachers in the state of Maryland, outside of the city of Baltimore, had the following training:

TABLE XI1

Preparation of White Elementary-School Teachers in Maryland, 1914-15

These are rather in advance of the medians shown by Dr. Coffman.

Proper data are not available to show the training of teachers in the elementary schools of the cities. Professor Bobbitt, of the School of Education of the University of Chicago, in his survey of the schools of San Antonio, Texas, gave the following table, showing the average years of training beyond the elementary school in certain cities, mostly from the middle west. The table is as follows:

TABLE XII 2

Average Years of Training beyond Elementary School of Elementary-School Teachers in certain Cities

1 General Education Board, Public Education in Maryland, p. 60.

2 Bobbitt, San Antonio Survey, p. 202.

D

Salaries of Elementary Teachers.-Carpenters in the United States receive an annual wage of $802, coal miners $600, factory workers $550, and labourers $513. The school teacher during the part of the year for which he is employed (see above, p. 26) receives $485. The average annual salaries 1 paid to elementaryschool teachers in the various states in 1910 were as follows:

1

It must be remembered that in many of the states the period of employment represents but a small part of the year; and with many of the teachers, particularly the men, other employment is resorted to during the remaining time. These data include highschool teachers as well as elementary. High-school teachers are usually better paid. We can assume, therefore, that elementaryschool teachers fall below rather than above these averages.

The following table giving the maximum, minimum, and average salaries paid to elementary-school teachers in the cities of the United States shows the influence of urban schools on the salaries of teachers:

TABLE XIII 2

Minimum, Maximum, and Average Salaries paid to City Elementary School

1 Russell Sage Foundation.

U.S. Bureau of Education, 1914, Bul. No. 16, pp. 10-12.

Tenure.-Teachers do not remain long in the rural schools. Salaries are poor and living conditions are not what they ought to be. There is a constant migration, particularly of good teachers, from the rural schools to those of the city. This was shown clearly in Dr. Coffman's study. Once in the city school, however, the tendency is for the teacher to remain. The average tenure of teachers in a few American cities is shown in the following table:

TABLE XIV 1

Tenure of Teachers in Certain Cities in the United States

Sex.-Women in the past few years have entered the teaching profession in increasing numbers. The percentage of men teachers in the public schools for certain years, which is given in the following table, shows this:

TABLE XV 3

Percentage of Men Teachers in Schools in United States in various Years

Principals. Nearly every elementary school in the United States is administered by a principal, usually more experienced than the teachers and appointed by higher authorities. In small 1 Bobbitt, ibid. p. 206.

2U.S. Bureau of Education, Annual Report, 1915.

schools the principal may also teach a portion of his time. In larger schools, not only is all his time taken up with administration, but it is often necessary for him to have assistants, supervisors, and other extra officers to help him in his work.

The salaries paid to principals of elementary schools in the United States in 1913-14 are given in the following table:

TABLE XVI 1

Minimum, Maximum, and Average Salaries paid to Elementary-School

VI. THE TRAINING OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL TEACHERS

The institution designed for the training of teachers for the elementary school in the United States is the normal school. Having its beginnings in special classes added to the regular work in the secondary schools of New York State in the third decade of the nineteenth century, the first separate normal school was founded in Massachusetts in 1838. Other states soon followed the lead, until to-day there are 167 normal schools and state teachers' colleges supported at public expense. These schools are distrithe various states as follows: 2

buted

among

1 U.S. Bureau of Education, 1914, Bul. 16, pp. 10-12.

Vermont
Virginia
Washington
W. Va.
Wis.

Wyoming
Delaware

51253791

. O

Judd and Parker, Problems Involved in Standardising State Normal

Schools, U.S. Bureau of Education, 1916, Bul. 12, p. 28.

Before high schools were widely established normal schools found it necessary to accept students who had graduated from the elementary school, and in a course, usually four years in length, combined high-school work with specific training for teaching. In many of the schools the first two years were spent in covering the work usually done in high school in four years, while the latter two years were devoted to professional training.

These schools are supported in most cases by direct appropriation from year to year by the state legislature. This has provided a varying income rarely commensurate with the needs of the schools. In some states a percentage of the taxes raised is turned over automatically to these schools, with supplementary appropriations from the legislature to take care of exceptional expenses. Because of the small amount of funds provided these schools, the faculties have not been as well trained as was necessary, but in the last few years there is an increasing percentage of the faculty, who have not only graduated from standard four-year colleges, but who in addition have done graduate work, holding the degree of M.A. or Ph.D. Of fifty-six normal schools in the north central states advanced degrees were held by the following percentages of the faculty: 1

Ninety-three per cent. of the faculty members of these schools had not received their doctor's degrees, while sixty-nine per cent. had not taken their master's degrees. Still, the progress made in the study of education in the colleges and universities, and the rise to prominence of such advanced schools for the training of teachers as Teachers' College, Columbia University, and the School of Education of the University of Chicago, have in recent years provided faculties for these normal schools excellently equipped for teaching teachers to teach.

"

1 Judd and Parker, ibid. p. 17. This table reads as follows: 22 schools in the north central states had between 1 per cent. and 9 per cent. of their faculties holders of the Ph.D. degree," etc.