ing, 5; algebra, 5; geometry, 5; observation lessons, 40; practice-lessons, 20 or 25, according to the previous teaching experience of the student. As nearly as practicable, arithmetic must be taught 2 periods per week; grammar, 2; literature, 1}; composition and spelling, 1; reading, 1; history, 1; writing and bookkeeping, 1; geography, 1; nature study, 1; science, I; hygiene,; art, 2; music, 2; physical culture, 1; manual training, 1; household science, 1; agriculture, 1; observation and practice-teaching, 4. The normal-school masters are required to teach groups not exceeding forty. This necessitates in some cases as many as six or seven repetitions of a lesson or lecture. The elaborate nature of the curriculum, combined with frequent delivery, causes the lesson periods to be unduly short-from twenty-five to thirtyfive minutes. The masters in charge of the academic work in a subject are required to develop its details in their teaching order, and, after each suitable step, themselves to teach model lessons in special public school classes, both in the normal school and in the model school itself. The master in charge of the science of education is required to illustrate formally by actual teaching the principles he has discussed in class. How he is to teach lessons to illustrate the nature of consciousness, mind and body, habit, sense-perception, memory, imagination, thinking, conception, feeling, sensuous feeling, emotion, mood, disposition, temperament, sentiments, the will, the sense of duty, education as the development of character, methods of child-study, periods of development, infancy, childhood, adolescence, characteristics of each period, the nature of education, educational institutions, school, church, home, vocation, the conflicting views as to the aim of school, and such other topics as are to be found in the detailed syllabus of the science of education, the regulations unfortunately leave us in the dark. So many topics are essayed, that only a mere smattering of each can be given in the time allotted. How much of the following course in the history of education can be effectively given in thirty lessons of half an hour each? HISTORY OF EDUCATION The object of the course in the History of Education is to widen the professional outlook and rationalise school practice through the discussion of the development and of the merits and the defects of educational theories. It presupposes an historical background and discusses movements rather than individuals. The course includes the following topics: Education prior to the Fifteenth Century.-A very brief survey of significant movements, with reference to the following topics: Education among primitive peoples; Oriental education; education in Sparta and Athens; education in Rome; early Christian education; the rise of the universities; education and chivalry. The Renaissance.-Its origin and educational significance; the humanistic movement; Vittorino da Feltre; Erasmus. Reformation and Counter-Reformation.-The Reformation and the Renaissance, Luther; the schools of the Jesuits and of the Christian Brothers. Organisation of Schools in Germany.-Melanchthon and Sturm. The Reaction against Humanistic Education.—Rise of the scientific spirit; Montaigne; Bacon, Ratke, Comenius. English Schools in Tudor Times.-Ascham; Locke. Modern Educational Theories and Practices.-The psychological tendency, Pestalozzi, Herbart, Froebel; the scientific movement, Spencer; education for social efficiency. Education in Great Britain and Ireland, and in the United States. Books of Reference: Ontario Normal School Manual, The History of Education. Kemp, History of Education. The intentions of the central departmental officials in planning such courses were undoubtedly most praiseworthy. They have, however, over-reached themselves. It is practically impossible to discover anywhere a single opening for the exercise of initiative or experiment by the normal-school teacher. Surely it is a case where the letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life. Certification. The regulations state that the final standing of the teacher-in-training shall be determined on the combined results of his sessional records and his prescribed examinations, and his observation and practice-teaching records. Some of the final examination papers are prepared by the staff, e.g. in art, vocal music, physical culture, nature study, manual training, household science, agriculture, algebra, geometry and manners. The final examinations in the other sixteen subjects are prepared by the department, and are uniform for the whole province. The regulations governing the conduct of the faculties of education, integral parts of universities, which train teachers for first-class certificates, are almost as explicitly detailed as those for normal schools. The course of study is almost the same, the texts (normal-school manuals) are the same, the time subdivision is much the same. Under the circumstances it is impossible for the staff to feel that spirit of liberty and freedom which The is the boasted inheritance of universities everywhere. writer feels convinced that the relaxation of rules, instead of weakening the work, would strengthen it very greatly. It would be impossible to find anywhere else in the world such a close centralisation of control as exists for the training of Ontario teachers to-day. Fortunately for Canada, the progressive provinces to the west have seen the unwisdom of Ontario's course. Principal McIntyre, of the Winnipeg Normal School, in his 1916 report, states: "But it is not length of training alone which is necessary. Variation is important. That is particularly true in a province such as Manitoba, where every district has its own peculiar problems. To general training should be joined a special training. A teacher must be more than a teacher in the abstract. She must be capable of meeting specific problems of instruction and management." Later he states: "The best solution of the problem, so far as the normal school is concerned, seems to be to differentiate the work of the students in some departments during a part of their course. Expressed in tabular form the programme would appear somewhat as follows: Compulsory Studies: Science of Education-pedagogy, psychology, etc. History of Education-great educators and their systems; current practices. Art of Education-in teaching and government; in play and work. Elective Studies: Course for primary teachers, Course for intermediate teachers. Course for high-school teachers. Course for rural teachers. Course for teachers in non-English schools. Course for teachers of defectives. Course for principals and inspectors. Course for playground instructors. Course for specialists in various departments." The writer feels that Principal McIntyre is working along the right lines. Canada trains "teachers in the abstract." Every teacher is presumably trained for every position; the probability is that he is not adequately trained for any. If Canadian teachers had to study half as many subjects, and those largely of an elective nature, they would be able to study them more thoroughly. Differentiation of schools is proceeding apace in Canada. Differentiation within schools is on the way. The training of teachers should conform to the new trend of events. Training of Teachers in Service.-There are three main ways in which Canadian teachers are improved during their period of service-by inspection, through teachers' institutes and associations, and by attendance at summer schools. Compulsory attendance at teachers' institutes obtains throughout Canada. They extend only over two to three days, a period too short to do much serious work. But they entirely justify themselves in that they make for the solidarity of the profession, promote social intercourse, and give a certain amount of information and inspiration. The visits of the inspector are too infrequent to exert much influence upon methods, but much good may be accomplished by the sympathetic inspector who supervises rather than inspects. By far the best plan of continued training is through summer schools. It is gratifying to find such excellent summer schools organised and inspired by the various provincial departments of Canada. The summer schools of Toronto and Edmonton are, perhaps, the most fully developed at the present time. Improvement of academic standing is the chief goal, but the professional side of training is far from being neglected. V. SECONDARY EDUCATION In a previous section (II.) it was shown that secondary education, at least in rural areas, is somewhat sharply differentiated from elementary, some provinces going so far as to elect different boards of trustees to manage it. Secondary education is also /superimposed upon elementary, just as it is in the United States; the secondary school which parallels the elementary school for a number of years-the standard type of Europe is unknown in Canada, except in private institutions. The normal age of transition from the elementary to the secondary is fourteen. Some educators believe that the change is made too late. They observe that in his studies the French or German graduate of a secondary school is about two years in advance of the corresponding Canadian or American boy. This is not to be wondered at. The European pupil has had nine years of secondary education, the Canadian only four. It is now believed that the time is mainly lost between the ages of twelve and fourteen. For pupils of these ages, be the intentions of educators and teachers ever so worthy, the school work becomes mainly a repetition of that which is done in the lower grades. The arithmetic, composition and geography are admittedly more advanced, whereas the European boy has exchanged these studies for algebra, geometry, foreign languages and sciences. As a matter of scientific fact, fourteen is too late in life to make the transition from elementary to secondary studies. The transfer should not take place during the storm and stress of adolescence. At that time pupils have already too many adjustments to make; why add those due to a new school environment? The change should be made not later than twelve, preferably at eleven or even at ten years of age. Further, no person can master foreign languages properly, either ancient or modern, who begins them as late as fourteen. The capacity for language is at its optimal period at about three years of age, after which it gradually fades, although such decay is hidden away under the habits of language which have been built up. If, however, we try to teach persons to speak who have been born deaf, we find that the task is fairly easy at three years of age, difficult at seven, impossible at ten. So far as the writer is aware, there is no case on record of a person born deaf having been taught to speak after reaching ten years of age. The language powers in normal persons have so far atrophied by the time fourteen years of age is reached, that to arouse them for Latin, Greek, French and German is well-nigh impossible. And what is true for languages holds also for several other secondary studies. Such facts as the foregoing have caused widespread interest throughout Canada in what is known in the United States as the junior high-school or intermediate-school movement. Some provinces are seriously considering a reorganisation of their educational systems, which will give six years to the elementary school, three to the junior high or intermediate school, and three to the senior high school. From present agitations it looks as if Saskatchewan and Alberta, and perhaps Manitoba also, would make the change in the near future. These provinces are more and more directing their gaze southwards to the United States for inspiration, rather than eastwards to Ontario. Types of Secondary Schools.-The standard secondary school of Canada is the high school of independent organisation with a four years' course of study. In a few sections of the Dominion, high schools with a six years' course have been developed. In others the high school is attached as an additional department to an existing elementary school, when the number of high-school pupils has grown sufficiently to warrant it. Thus, in Manitoba, an elementary school with ten or more pupils who have passed the high-school entrance examination may make application for intermediate standing. The secondary school of British Columbia |