The limit in the amount which a county council may raise out of the rates for purposes of education other than elementary is now removed; and, with a view to promoting the efficiency of teaching and advanced study, any authority may aid teachers and students to carry on research in or in connection with an educational institution.

XIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Balfour, Graham, Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland, Oxford, 1903.

A very important work, though somewhat out of date. Board of Education, (1) Annual Reports; (2) Statistics, Educational and Financial; (3) Annual Reports of the Chief Medical Officer of Health, London, annual.

Burstall, S. A., English High Schools for Girls, London, 1907. Does for English girls' secondary schools what Norwood and Hope's book does for boys'.

Jackson, Cyril, Outlines of Education in England, London, no date, about 1913.

A critical account of English education by a writer with sound knowledge and excellent judgment.

Kandel, I. L., Elementary Education in England, Washington, 1914.

A special bulletin prepared for the United States Bureau of Education. Gives a first-hand account of the systems found in London, Liverpool, and Manchester.

Lawson, W. R., John Bull and His Schools.

A somewhat popular account.

Norwood and Hope, Higher Education of Boys in England, London, 1909.

The best account extant of the secondary education of English boys. Contains excellent summaries of the secondary systems of France, Germany, and the United States as well. Sadler, M. E., Board of Education Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London, various dates.

Michael Sadler, Matthew Arnold, and Henry Barnard as writers upon educational topics are unequalled.

Sadler, M. E., Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere, Manchester, 1907.

Sandiford, Peter, The Training of Teachers in England and Wales, New York, 1910.

Yoxall and Gray, The Red Code, London, annual.

It is generally conceded by cosmopolitan and disinterested observers that France is the brain, and in many respects the heart, of Europe. It is a matter of scientifically-demonstrable fact that for the last hundred years she has been the vanguard of economic progress and has experimented with splendid courage in almost every field of thought and action. While no nation is more socially conservative, at times it would seem almost static in its adherence to tradition, no nation has been equally adventurous in politics and in the humaner spheres of letters and of art. In 1914 it became patent that if France went under, it would be as though the light of Europe had been put out. Scholar, artist, social reformer and scientist alike are unanimous in acknowledging gratefully their debts to a country which has produced a national style of "unencumbered expressiveness" and delicate grace, wherein clear thinking is inseparably wedded to clear expression-which is incapable of making an ugly lamp-postwhich has shown both idealism and logic in its economic outlook -which has been the home at once of patient scientific research and of brilliant scientific inventiveness. Only those who have lived in France and are now away from her can realise the tenderness of regard which she inspires-so brave, so thrifty, so gay, so witty, so warm-hearted, and so thorough. It is, therefore, a thing worth while to consider briefly the manner in which France educates her children, shaping them by her tradition and by her atmosphere and ever ready to be shaped by them in turn. Nothing, perhaps, could be more exaggerated than the now fashionable identification of instruction and intelligence, instruction and

'I wish to express my gratitude to Mr. Twentyman, the librarian of the Board of Education Library, London, for help rendered in the preparation of this chapter. I am also indebted to Mr. Murray for permission to use certain material occurring in Higher Education of Boys in England. The writings of various authors have been consulted. Those of Dr. Farrington, easily the first foreign authority on French education, have proved especially valuable.-A. H. H. 42 3

morality. Instruction can do much to further or hinder thought and morals. It cannot make them. The greatness of France, as of every other leading nation, transcends the excellence of her schools, is rather the cause than the result of whatever educational merit may be found in her. With this reservation, however, we may turn to consider French schools with the certainty that their study will throw light upon the solution of many problems which confront all countries equally and for which the attitude of the most intellectual and refined of European nations cannot fail to be suggestive. "Rien de si gentil que les petits enfants de France," says Montaigne. It is equally true to-day, and equally true also that "rien de si logique ni de si courageux que ses hommes faits." How then have such men been trained?

In a sketch of education which has to be condensed within narrow limits a certain superficiality of treatment is inevitable. In what follows the historical causation and development of present-day conditions will be almost entirely ignored: few details and statistics will be included. The aim will rather be to emphasise what is most salient and suggestive in French education to-day than to compile a dull summary of facts and figures. Greater space will be devoted to the exposition of those branches of training, especially secondary instruction, in which France is most distinctive and national. Many things that deserve a more detailed account will inevitably receive only a scanty treatment. (To lead off with a truism, education in France, as everywhere else, faithfully reflects national history. In the early middle ages it was essentially a branch of ecclesiastical activity, the great French schools from the fourth to the twelfth century being monastery schools, mostly for novices, though with a later provision for boys not destined for orders. The secular clergy maintained a lower type of education in episcopal schools, narrowly utilitarian in their aim-the training of diocesan priests.) In the thirteenth century, the University of Paris, the prototype of Oxford, begins to take shape and more and more schools are founded on the Mont Ste. Geneviève, students, boys and men alike, flocking to hear the scholastic application of the Aristotelian philosophy to the problems of theology and life. These scholars were divided into four nations, France, Picardy, Normandy, and England, the last, after the Edwardian hostilities, giving place to Germany. The masters and students of the university were recognised as a corporation by Innocent III. and given a certain degree of independence against the Chancellor of the Cathedral, who was

prone to limit to "safe" applicants the licentia docendi, or master's degree, which conferred the right to teach. Still, the atmosphere remained essentially clerical and scholastic, the Faculty of Arts leading up to the Faculties of Theology, Canon Law, and Medicine. The Arts studies were divided into the trivium and quadrivium, the former comprising the consecutive stages of grammar, rhetoric (poetry, history, composition), dialectic (philosophy); the quadrivium embracing arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music. More and more the Faculty of Arts became subordinate and preparatory to the other faculties, including only the younger students and giving, in fact, secondary rather than university instruction. Strangely enough, by that tendency to conservatism which meets one at every turn in France, this old-world teaching and its very terms survive in the main in French schools to-day: the forms of the middle school come under the division of Grammar," the top class is "Rhetoric," followed by "Philosophy " or " Mathematics." As at Oxford, the colleges of the period were originally / hostels, especially for boys, who might thus be enabled to pursue their studies far from the town-and-gown riots in which the older gownsmen rejoiced. Most of them were founded by churchmen, with scholarships for the poor; they date from the fourteenth century and under different names many survive to-day, the Collège d'Harcourt being the Lycée St. Louis, the Collège de Navarre the Lycée Henri IV. But whereas at Oxford the colleges have become boarding-houses for men studying at the university, in France they have remained true to their original design of providing hostels for boys, who complete in them the Arts course and from them take the bachelor's degree. Other university towns of medieval France, Toulouse, Montpellier, Orléans, Angers, followed the lead of Paris and grouped round them similar schools for their younger students, and we can now see how "secular " is the connection in France between secondary and university education. Again, just as at Oxford, there was an ever-growing tendency on the part of these colleges to keep their students for instruction within their own walls instead of taking them to the public university courses in Arts. Absolute licence was thus exchanged for the monastic seclusion which characterises the French boarding-school to this day.

The Renaissance did not permanently modify the spirit of French education. The Collège Royal, the future Collège de France, which Francis I. founded in 1530, remained, it is true, a protest of the humanistic spirit against the scholasticism and

religious dogmatism of the university, but middle-class conservatism gave the victory to ecclesiastical bigotry. Within a brief period the Protestant colleges which had been springing up all over France completely disappeared: humanism became suspect: lethargy again stole gradually over schools and universities alike. To this lethargy there were two honourable exceptions, the colleges of the Jesuits and the Little Schools of Port Royal. When in 1565, to promote the counter-Reformation, the Jesuits took up schoolmastering their success was rapid. By their unrivalled teaching, the devotion of their masters, the greater humanity of their discipline, and their social prestige they attracted so many students as at times to empty the benches of the university institutions. In a hundred years they had eightytwo schools in Paris alone, the most famous being the Collège de Clermont, the present Lycée Louis le Grand, the school of Molière and so many famous men besides. The Jesuits excelled in teaching the classics, but they taught them formally, as lessons in style alone, and their discipline demoralised by its excessive appeal to rivalry and personal ambition. A much greater educational stride was taken, during their brief history, by the Petites Écoles of Port Royal, the school of Racine and the home of Christian gentleness and modesty. By their insistence on the necessity of leading boys to the unknown through the known, involving translation into the mother tongue (elsewhere a heresy), and their systematic study of French they were notably in advance of their age. Unluckily their benefits were confined to very few boys and Jansenist saints and schools alike were soon suppressed by the influence of the Jesuit Order.

The turn of the victor to be vanquished came less than a hundred years later, for in 1764 the Society of Jesus was suppressed throughout the realm of France, and the University or the Oratorians took over those of the Jesuit colleges which were not amalgamated. The gap caused was immense. In spite of the efforts of the Benedictines and the Oratorians (to whom belongs the honour of emphasising the importance of the studies of history, mathematics, and physics) the deadening hand of the University was more and more felt equally in higher and in secondary education. Reformers like Rousseau and the eighteenth-century philosophers only prepared the way for the coming century by arousing discontent. Finances diminished and lifelessness increased inside the public schools and faculties. It is not surprising therefore that the Revolution found little worth conserving and