way. In 1890 a temperance measure was introduced into Parliament, which failed to receive its sanction. In anticipation of its success certain financial adjustments had been made by the government. The party in power found itself, therefore, with certain moneys from whiskey duties which had already been discounted. These moneys were, therefore, devoted in part to superannuation of the police, in part to higher education, and so they are disposed of to this day.

The parliamentary grants are made on a per capita basis. They are paid at the rate of £2 for each pupil between ten and twelve years of age, and £5 for each pupil between twelve and eighteen years of age. Since 1913 the Board has paid an additional grant of £1 a head on pupils between fifteen and eighteen years of age in secondary schools which offer twenty-five per cent. of free places to pupils from elementary schools. The principle is thus established of paying at a higher rate for older pupils. This practice should be further extended in order to keep pupils in school beyond the present average leaving age of sixteen. As the best age for transference from the elementary to a secondary school is from eleven to twelve, the grants for pupils below eleven could, with profit, be discontinued. In 1917 the secondary education grants are to be materially increased, in fact almost doubled, in order that the assistant teachers may be better paid and that valuable though expensive forms of education may be undertaken.

The local rate for higher education, which includes technical, art, and evening classes, is limited to 2d. in the pound, unless sanction for a higher rate is obtained from the Local Government Board. Frequent requests for the removal of the limit have been made by local authorities, owing to the rapidly increasing cost of secondary education, and the requests have usually been granted. Lancashire, for example, has now a higher education rate of 3d.; Dorsetshire, on the other hand, a rural county, levies only a farthing rate (a mill), and this was not needed before 1914.

The fees charged vary widely. They range from less than a guinea to twenty guineas, eighty per cent. falling between three and ten guineas. The fees in council schools average £5.75 in schools for boys, £5.4 in schools for girls, and £3.8 in co-educational schools. In foundation schools the corresponding average fees are £7.45, £7.7, and £4.95.

Generally speaking the rates and grants provide about eighty per cent. of the total receipts, while fees provide half the re

mainder. Many of the public schools which are under private management are paying their way rather by the fees paid for board than those for tuition. The first-grade boarding schools with 20,000 pupils charge fees which in the aggregate amount to £1,500,000.

Leaving Examinations.—While there are no secondary-school examinations bearing the above title, the numerous examinations granting entrance to the universities, as well as the innumerable scholarship examinations, ninety in all, partake of the character of leaving examinations, since they can only be taken by pupils who have completed, or nearly completed, a full secondary-school course. As a matter of fact, the English secondary school is examination ridden. After an exhaustive inquiry into the matter through its Consultative Committee in 1911, the Board, in circular 849, embodied proposals which in effect are as follows:

(1) To establish in every secondary school recognised for grants two new external examinations of grades suitable for sixteen and eighteen year old pupils respectively, to be taken annually in every school and to be conducted by a university, but the standard to be fixed by the Board of Education and to be substantially equivalent throughout the country.

(2) To reserve the right of prohibiting every such secondary school from preparing pupils for other external examinations, except with the special permission of the Board of Education.

These examinations are obviously modelled upon the plan of the two state leaving examinations of German secondary schools. While there is no doubt of the existence of a very serious evil in the multiplicity of examinations which secondary pupils may take, it is a matter for debate whether or not the remedy proposed is the best which can be found. At the present time the prescriptions of the various universities are so diverse-one, for example, requiring Latin, another a modern language or a particular science, for entrance to a particular faculty or the university itself —that unless the Board can prevail upon the universities to accept its examinations the only result will be the addition of two more examinations to the already overcrowded list. The writer's experience with state examinations in Germany and Canada leads him to believe that the plan, if adopted, will so crystallise the curriculum of secondary schools that diversity, a most desirable thing in schools, will become a thing of the past. The best remedy, it would appear, is the gradual consolidation, with accompanying state-wide recognition, of examinations already

in existence. As illustrations of what is possible in this direction, the cases of the joint matriculation examination of the northern universities and the work of the Central Welsh Board may be cited.

IX. TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

The first attempt to deal with the training of secondary teachers in England was made in Queen's College, London, about 1850. Each professor issued on his own authority certificates of competency in his own branch to students duly attending the lectures. The College of Preceptors first granted diplomas to secondary teachers in 1854, a practice it has continued to the present day. From 1873 it has organised courses of lectures on teaching. A fairly successful attempt at training was made by the Teachers' Training and Registration Society, which established the Maria Grey Training College in 1878. Although the work of the college was divided into three parts-lower, higher, and kindergarten-the needs of secondary teachers were kept uppermost and were catered for accordingly. The formation of the Teachers' Training Syndicate by the Cambridge Senate in 1879, which was authorised to arrange for the delivery of certain courses of lectures, the institution of a secondary teachers' diploma examination in 1883 by the University of London, the establishment of the Oxford Delegacy for the training of secondary teachers in 1896, and the consistent advocacy of the policy of training secondary teachers by the Headmasters' Conference and other associations of teachers from the "seventies" onwards, have all contributed to the solution of this difficult problem.

Previous to the Bryce Royal Commission on Secondary Education in 1895 the facilities for training secondary teachers had wholly been provided by private individuals or voluntary organisations, whose field was restricted to women. Very few of the colleges had suitable practising schools under their own direction, and many of them were wholly engaged in the preparation of candidates for external examinations. The commission recommended that courses of special preparation with both theoretical and practical sides should be established. After examining many witnesses with respect to the relative merits of providing such courses by colleges for elementary teachers already in existence, or by the universities, or as a kind of apprenticeship in a properly appointed secondary school, the commission finally concluded

that, on the whole, it would be better for universities to provide the training, although other institutions in the nature of residential colleges should be allowed to co-operate. Such training, wherever given, should only be open to students with high academic attainments and should be entirely professional in character.

The inauguration of the teachers' register in 1902 (discontinued for a number of years, but now revived and reorganised) and the passing in the same year of the Education Act which brought secondary schools under the control of the central authority, both stimulated efforts to provide training colleges for secondary teachers. That the Board were favourable to the movement is shown by the following article, which has appeared in each issue of the regulations for secondary schools since 1905: "Where the Board think fit, they may, on consideration of the teaching staff as a whole, require that a certain proportion of all new appointments shall consist of persons who have gone through a course of training recognised by the Board for the purpose." Since the Board were demanding trained secondary teachers the logic of the situation demanded that they should also provide the necessary facilities. In 1908, therefore, the Board first made grants to certain institutions which trained secondary teachers. The movement has widened considerably since its inception, and the position now is that certain diplomas from institutions which receive no grants are recognised as satisfactory by the Board (although it has no lot or part in the control of the course or the examinations) together with all diplomas from the stateaided institutions. More and more institutions are placing themselves under the Board's supervision in return for grants in aid. There are at present three types of secondary training institutions recognised by the Board. The first is the training college, which is a constituent part of a university. In this institution lectures on methods and theory are given by the college staff, while the practice teaching is undertaken in neighbouring secondary schools. The second type centres around the secondary school. The main emphasis is on the practical training, and as but few students can be accommodated even in the largest school, considerable attention can be devoted to each student. The lectures are given by the head-teacher and specially qualified members of his staff. The third type of training institution is really a combination of the foregoing and bids fair to become the dominant type. Here the training college works in close co-operation with a group of secondary schools. The training

department is responsible for the theoretical work and the secondary schools for the practical. This seems a wise division of labour; the staff of a training college is well fitted to deliver lectures, while the staff of a secondary school is more competent to deal with practice teaching. The arrangement existing between Rugby and Cambridge University, by which the teacher in training spends two terms teaching under supervision at the school, and a third term at the university for instruction in theory, is somewhat of this nature, although the distance between the two institutions precludes a very close co-operation between the two staffs.

Another feature of secondary training in England is that it must be specialised. The student must train to be a teacher of modern languages, science, mathematics, classics, English, or history. The all-round teacher is not encouraged. The Board's recognition of any particular school for training purposes is restricted to courses in one or more specified subjects. Thus, Exeter Boys' School is limited to preparing teachers of Latin; Exeter Maynard's Girls' School trains teachers of English (with subsidiary Latin), history, modern languages, and science; while Winchester Girls' School trains teachers of French, Latin, and science. Even students in university departments must be given specialist training, and the diploma granted at the conclusion of the course must indicate the subject in which the student is especially qualified. The special study of modern languages is not considered adequate unless the prospective teacher has spent some time instudy abroad prior to his year of professional training. Other points in the organisation which should be noticed are as follows: The college or other training institution is recognised for a definite number of students. In university training departments the minimum is ten; in approved secondary schools the maximum is three. The course of training is a full academic year and no other courses of study may be undertaken contemporaneously. The Board must be satisfied, in every case, that the general management, the adequacy, competency, and salaries of the staff, the courses of instruction and tests of proficiency, the scale of fees, the premises and equipment are such as can be approved. The principal and at least one-half the staff must have had successful practical experience as teachers in secondary schools for a reasonable period. The students must be at least twenty-one years of age and must hold degrees from a British university or other university of equal standing, or some other