and sit at the feet of teachers who represent the highest of scholarly attainments in their respective fields of learning.

The course of study is divided into two parts-the academic and professional. The academic part comprises subjects leading to the bachelor's degree, either honours or ordinary. The academic course selected by the student is usually arts or science, although engineering has been sanctioned by the Board. Education in English universities is usually one of the subjects for the bachelor's degree, and to this extent the student-in-training kills two birds with one stone. The professional side of the work includes the study of the principles and practice of teaching, theory of music and singing, reading and recitation, drawing, and (for women) needlework. The course for three-year students is arduous, for in three years (the ordinary period of study for a degree) they must do all the work leading to the degree as well as the professional studies outlined above. The student naturally places the emphasis on his degree work, since by it alone can he hope to raise himself into the class of secondary teachers, while he neglects his professional subjects as much as he dares. To meet this objection the Board has extended the period of training, for all who care to avail themselves of the opportunity, to four years. The first three years are almost free from professional work and the student can concentrate on academic studies leading to a degree; the fourth year, the post-graduate year, is wholly devoted to professional work. The course is working excellently. There are few countries, if any, which can boast such well-trained elementary teachers as the graduates of the English four-year course.

At the end of the course, whether it be for two, three, or four years, come the examinations and certification. The written papers in subjects of the two-year course are usually set and examined by the Board; the practical side of the work is virtually passed upon by the college staffs. The Board's inspectors act as assessors and see that standards are maintained. The colleges may, however, either group themselves for a joint examination which all can agree upon, or they may call in the members of some university staff to judge of their success. The Board in such cases asserts its rights to supervise the arrangements. With university students no examinations are set in academic subjects, as the degree is accepted in lieu of them. The practical side of the work is judged by the staff with the Board's inspectors acting as The successful students are awarded a certificate

assessors.

which is valid for life in any government-supported institution. The certificate records for each candidate (a) the name of the college in which he was trained; (b) details of his training and success in examinations; and (c) a statement of the subjects included in his course of study. Appointing committees can thus see at a glance if a candidate possesses the requisite qualifications for the post they wish to fill.

Practically the whole cost of training teachers is borne by the Board of Education. Grants are given for buildings and for the training of students. The latter are on a per capita basis, and naturally promote competition between colleges for students. It is no unusual thing to find advertisements for students in the daily papers. The aid given is generous. A college, for example, receives £53 on account of each male student in residence. Fees are paid by the Board for students in university training colleges. The students themselves receive maintenance allowances amounting each year to £25 for men and £20 for

women.

Although England is still far from the stage when training can be demanded of every teacher employed in the schools, great progress has been made. Progress will be even more rapid when the general population realises that trained teachers receiving adequate remuneration for their services are absolutely essential for the proper well-being of the country. And it must not be forgotten that in linking up the training of elementary teachers with the other activities of modern vigorous universities, England has made a most notable contribution to the solution of one of the most difficult of modern problems.

VI. WELFARE WORK

By welfare work is meant the many and varied agencies employed for conserving the health of children and for promoting their general happiness. In this field of activity England has made more progress than in any other department of educational organisation. But the movement is of recent origin. During the greater part of the nineteenth century she almost forgot that the dictum of her great teacher, John Locke, remains eternally true: that "A sound mind in a sound body is a short, but full description of a happy state in this world."

Humane feelings rather than logical reasons dictated the early policy of the new health movement. The acts dealing with the

education of the blind and deaf (1893), the defective and epileptic (1895), are best regarded as continuations of the great humanitarian movement of the nineteenth century. It was the Boer War (1899-1902) which really aroused England to the seriousness of the physical defect in her midst. At the same time came the realisation that the prevention of sickness is better than its cure, and is also far more economical. Hence arose what has been aptly described as the compulsory health movement.

The movement exhibits many phases. First and foremost must be mentioned the inauguration in 1908 of a national compulsory system of medical inspection of school children. At first only those children entering or leaving school were examined; an intermediate age group, eight to nine years, was added in 1914.

Great progress has also been made in the co-ordination of all the services directed towards the conservation of the health, not only of school children, but of citizens of all ages. This co-ordination, however, is not easy, owing to the number of authorities in central control of different aspects of national health.1 Consequently serious overlapping is frequent and among the voluntary relief agencies and infant care committees in towns competition for cases is not unknown. As an example of the change of spirit the case of medical inspection of scholars may be cited. For some years there was a feeling abroad that it was being pushed in order to save future expense to the state in connection with the National Insurance Act. There was some justification for resentment when an obviously national burden like medical inspection was wholly thrown upon local authorities. But with increasing grants by the Board of Education (these now cover one-half the total cost of inspection and treatment) this feeling gradually disappeared and is now practically non-existent.

Another important aspect in the national conservation of health is the discovery of the value of fresh air. The movement directs its energies into three main channels-the provision of

1 For example, sanitation, public health, and infectious diseases are controlled by the Local Government Board; the industrial employment of pregnant women falls within the province of the Home Office; midwives are supervised by a Central Midwives' Board under the Privy Council; domiciliary medical treatment of working women and the dispensing of the maternity benefit are under the jurisdiction of the National Insurance Commission; while medical inspection of schools and scholars, open-air schools and institutions for the blind, deaf, and cripples, the training of girls in the care and management of infants, in home nursing and hygiene, are controlled by the Board of Education. It is high time that a Minister of Public Health was appointed to co-ordinate these various services.

playgrounds for children both in connection with schools and with parks; the organisation of open-air schools and the building of open-air classrooms; and the provision of national sanatoria for tubercular patients. The last-named are, of course, only indirectly connected with education. They are part of the national insurance scheme, but efforts are now being made to link them up with school medical inspection and the provision of clinics.

In a somewhat different category, but still closely related to the movements outlined above, are the provisions made for the education and care of children who are subnormal either in mind or body. At first permissive legislation was passed to deal with the various subnormal groups. The problem became so acute, especially in connection with mentally defective children, that compulsory legislation became necessary and has recently (1913 and 1914) been enacted.

Another aspect of welfare work is that which concerns itself with the feeding of necessitous children. Careful observers had long ago pointed out the futility, even the cruelty, of trying to educate children whose bodies were starved. A first, hesitating step was taken in 1906, when the Education (Provision of Meals) Act was passed. The scope of the original measure has been increased by the passing of the 1914 act. When the scheme was introduced there were loud cries about pauperising the working man, the thin edge of the wedge of socialism, etc., but granting all these limitations, the modern state cannot penalise children for the sins or shortcomings of their parents. Moreover, the scheme has justified itself by its success.

Still another movement in health conservation is that which focussed its energies upon children of pre-school age. Medical inspection of school children revealed many preventable defects and injuries which were acquired during infancy and early childhood. How to get at the mothers and the babies was the problem. Two avenues of approach were found possible. The first was the extension of the voluntary institutions known as schools for mothers. These are agencies for educating mothers in the care and management of babies. They are now becoming co-ordinated with the school medical services, sanitary authorities, baby clinics, and similar organisations. The second was the establishment of day nurseries. These are institutions which care for infants, usually under three years of age, for whom adequate care cannot be provided in the home by reason of the absence of the mother

at work, or other similar cause. The main endeavour looks towards the promotion of the physical welfare of the children, and in this marked success has been achieved. One-half the total cost of each type of activity is now met by grants from the Board of Education.

In all these movements a gradual change of emphasis is seen. At first environment was considered all-important; latterly the person as an individual receives the main attention. There is exhibited a tendency to get back to origins in health-to healthy parenthood (the most important), to healthy infancy, and to healthy childhood.

Such in outline are the main features of the new health movement in England. Lack of space forbids more than the merest mention of the details of the chief of these. But the more important aspects of one or two of them will now be described.

Medical Inspection of Scholars.-The aim of medical inspection and all its attendant agencies, whether in England or elsewhere, is to enable the individual scholar to obtain the full benefits, both physical and intellectual, of the education which is provided. This aim is furthered by (a) the discovery at as early an age as possible of physical defects and chronic ailments of importance; (b) the adoption of measures which will ensure that the curable defects and ailments receive appropriate attention without unnecessary delay; (c) the early detection of infectious and contagious disease so that, by exclusion and isolation, the rest of the pupils and the community at large may be protected; (d) the inspection of school premises so that insanitary conditions may be reported upon and remedied as soon as possible; and (e) the compilation of tables, data, and statistics to serve as a safe basis for further legislative measures and the organisation of other medical agencies which have as their aim the removal of the causes that underlie the unfitness and disease incidental to school life.

Medical inspection, like other branches of educational administration in England, exhibits both central and local control. The central control is in the hands of the Medical Department of the Board of Education, which does duty for Wales as well as England. At its head is the chief medical officer of the Board, who is finally responsible for the general organisation and administration of the school medical service throughout the country. Uniformity of procedure and of records is essential, and this is secured by the issuance of circulars and by demanding that the