authorities responsible for the payment of the pension up to the statutory limit are required to deposit the requisite sums with the county bureau which undertakes the management and distribution of the fund at a small cost. Widows and orphans of deceased teachers are entitled to support. A widow may be granted an allowance of forty per cent. of the pension to which her husband was or would have been entitled at the time of his death. The children, if their mother is living, are entitled each to one-fifth of the sum paid to the mother; otherwise each receives onethird of the amount to which the mother would have been entitled. In no case may the combined allowance of the mother and children be equal to the amount of the pension to which the deceased teacher was entitled. Payments under these regulations do not accrue until three months after the death of the teacher, the full amount of the deceased's pension being paid during this period. The cost of these allowances to widows and orphans is shared by the state and local authorities, while the management, as in the case of pensions, is entrusted to the county bureaus.

Assured of a comfortable salary adjusted to local circumstances and undisturbed as to the future because of the security of tenure and the provisions for himself on retirement and for his family in the event of his death, the Prussian teacher finds little to interrupt him in the performance of the precise and definite task for which he has been just as precisely and definitely trained. If he performs his duty satisfactorily the system of inspection is not so well organised that it can reach him more frequently than once in two years. His immediate superior, the local school inspector, has little influence over him professionally, while in a graded school the principal is but a senior colleague. The stimulus for professional growth is not too great. Once a year the district inspectors conduct conferences for the teachers of their districts, but these are not sufficiently sustained to be of great value. Greater influence is exercised, perhaps, by teachers' associations, which serve the social, economic, and professional interests of the teachers. The largest and most important of these is the Deutsche Lehrerverein, a national association with branches throughout the country. For the ambitious teachers another stimulus is found in the promotional examinations for appointments in middle schools and as principals of elementary schools. The examination for appointment as teacher in a middle school is written and oral and consists of pedagogy and two subjects selected from religion, German, French, English, history,

geography, mathematics, botany and zoology, physics and chemistry. A dissertation, for the preparation of which eight weeks are allowed, and the presentation of a lesson before the examiners complete the examination. After three years' experience in a middle school the examination for the position as principal of an elementary school may be taken. The examination includes a thesis and oral questions on the general fields of pedagogy, special method, school administration and state regulations, the chief types of school apparatus and aids for instruction, and popular and child literature, and, where such is taught, a foreign language.

V. INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION

The title of this section is somewhat of a misnomer, since the Prussian intermediate school (Mittelschule) is not an intermediate institution. It corresponds to the French and English higher primary schools. It is intended to furnish a somewhat more intensive study of the subjects of the elementary schools, especially in science and history, with the addition of a foreign language. Established originally under the Allgemeine Bestimmungen of 1872, this type of school has been reorganised under new regulations issued in 1910 to prepare boys and girls to meet the new demands in trade, industry, and the fine arts. The school is organised on the basis of a nine-year course, the first three of which may be given in an ordinary elementary school. Pupils may thus be transferred to the Mittelschule proper at the age of nine and are expected to remain until they reach the age of fifteen. The advantages claimed for the intermediate school are the addition of an extra year, smaller classes, and better facilities for doing home work, since the pupils are drawn from a slightly higher social scale than those attending the ordinary elementary schools. Tuition fees are charged, but are limited to half the amount charged in secondary schools. The teachers are required to have passed the examination to qualify for permanent appointment in an elementary school and a special examination for teachers in intermediate schools. The salaries are 300 M. ($75) higher than in the elementary schools. The curriculum includes religion, German, history, geography, arithmetic with bookkeeping in the last year, nature study, writing, drawing, singing, handwork (gardening or domestic subjects), physical training, and one foreign language (French or English) begun at the age of ten or eleven.

This type of school is not popular with teachers or with parents. The teachers of the elementary schools object that the Mittelschule attracts the brighter pupils who cannot afford to attend asecondary school, and that parents are inclined to send their children to such a school because of the slightly higher social standing of its clientele. The parents, on the other hand, feel that, if they keep their children in school until the age of fifteen, they should be granted the same privileges as pupils who attend the first six years of a secondary school, which also takes them up to the age of fifteen. As a concession to the latter objection, boys who have passed through the Mittelschule are granted the one-year military service privilege on passing an examination including two foreign languages. Certain positions in the civil service have also been opened to pupils from these intermediate schools. On the whole, however, these schools are subject to the same criticism as the higher elementary schools in England, that they are not sufficiently distinct as a type from the lower secondary schools to warrant a differentiation. In Germany the denial of the privileges that are attached to a secondary school makes the criticism more pointed. The further objection might also be added that the great variety of trade schools and of compulsory continuation schools, offering better preparation for the vocations intended by the regulations to be served by the Mittelschule, tends to deprive it of any advantages that it might otherwise have possessed. The Mittelschule, therefore, makes its appeal to parents mainly as a class school, separating from the class attending the ordinary elementary school the intermediate class that cannot afford the fees of a secondary school but can pay the small fee demanded in the Mittelschule.

To the class of Mittelschule also belong a number of schools in small localities that cannot afford to maintain secondary schools. These schools (Rektoratsschulen, Oberschulen, Lateinschulen) serve as preparatory schools for the nearest secondary schools. Their chief advantage is that they are inexpensive and help to keep pupils at home as long as possible.

In 1911 there were in Prussia 632 Mittelschulen of all types, attended by 180,729 pupils (92,053 boys and 88,676 girls) and taught by 5698 teachers (3911 men and 1787 women). The cost of maintaining these schools was 25,760,324 M. ($6,440,081). Of this sum 835,792 M. ($208,948) was furnished by the state and 24,924,532 M. ($6,231,133) was derived from other sources.

VI. SECONDARY EDUCATION

While the elementary schools are intended to train the Godfearing, self-supporting, patriotic subject, the aim of the German secondary schools is to impart a broad liberal education and practical preparation for positions of expert leadership in the civil service or in the professions. The development of secondary education in Germany during the nineteenth century has been the progressive development of the conception of liberal education to suit the needs of modern life and society.The nucleus of the present secondary-school system, the classical gymnasium, had its origin in the Renaissance-Reformation period, but owes its modern form to the reorganisation that took place in Prussian education under Von Humboldt at the beginning of the nineteenth century. It was at this period that the classical secondary school was given a position of pre-eminence by its association with two important privileges. In 1812 the leaving examination (Abiturientenexamen), established temporarily in 1788, was revived and made obligatory for those who desired to enter the universities. Two years later an additional privilege, which has played an important part in the development of secondary schools, was bestowed on them. Attendance at the gymnasium until a certain standard was attained entitled the students to the privilege of one year of military service as volunteers, a privilege whose possession distinguished the educated from the uneducated. Further, in 1810, all candidates for appointment in secondary schools were required to pass an examination, a requirement that established for the first time a secular teaching profession in Prussia. Administrative machinery for the control and supervision of secondary schools was organised in 1817, and under the influence of Johannes Schulze, who was chief of the bureau of education, a bureaucratic despotism was evolved. (The limitation of the privileges to the gymnasium tended to give this school a monopoly in the field of secondary education. Latin and Greek formed the chief subjects of the curriculum, while all other subjects were subordinated. Under the direction of Ludwig Wiese the school examinations were limited to the classics.

In the meantime the demand for a modern curriculum that would afford some preparation for the new world of commerce and industry became increasingly insistent. The real schools, which had been established after the model of the Realschule founded in 1748 by Johann Julius Hecker in Berlin, could have met this demand, but, without the privileges granted to the

gymnasium and in the face of the scholastic opposition to modern subjects, they failed to attract students. After the middle of the nineteenth century, however, in 1859, the real schools were organised as schools for imparting general culture and for laying the foundations of a general education in the fundamentals of knowledge. Two types of schools were now evolved, the Realgymnasium giving a nine-year course and including Latin and modern subjects, and the Realschule giving a shorter course without Latin. In 1870 the graduates of the Realgymnasium were admitted to the universities, but were limited there to the study of mathematics, modern languages, and science in preparation for the teaching profession. In 1878 there was organised a third form of nine-year school, the Oberrealschule, offering a course in modern languages and sciences without Latin. A struggle now began for the equal recognition of all the nine-year courses for complete admission to the universities and freedom to prepare for all the professions. The supporters of the classical tradition, however, proved too strong, and an impasse was reached from which there appeared to be no outlet. Progress would probably have been long delayed but for the personal intervention of the present Kaiser, who came to the throne in 1888. One year after his accession he addressed an order to the Prussian ministry demanding some reform that would bring the schools into sympathy with modern times, that would make the schools useful instruments of progress, and that would check the spread of socialism. A conference of the leading educators was summoned in 1890 at which the Kaiser delivered the opening address. He attacked the philologists who laid stress on learning and knowledge, but neglected the formation of character and the needs of the time. The examinations emphasised theory rather than practice, while the aims of the schools were defined in terms of discipline and gymnastics of the mind instead of in terms of preparation to meet the problems of life. "First of all," he urged, "a national basis is wanting. The foundation of our gymnasium must be German. It is our duty to educate men to become young Germans and not young Greeks or Romans. We must relinquish the basis that has been the rule for centuries, the old monastic education of the Middle Ages, when Latin and a little Greek were most important. These are no longer our standard; we must make German the basis and German composition must be made the centre round which everything else revolves." In order to give a proper perspective for modern problems, German and history, especially from the period of the French Revolution, were to