II.-Description of Professor Abbe's Apertometer, with Instructions for its Use. By CARL ZEISS, of Jena.

(Read before the ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY, by JOHN E. INGPEN, Esq., December 5, 1877.)

PLATE II.

THE apparatus in question is intended to enable an exact measurement of angular aperture of any object-glass, dry or immersion, to be made, and to afford a definition of aperture, which is not limited by the maximum air-angle, which is independent of the medium in front of the lens, and which at the same time, by its theoretical signification, may afford a direct indication of the resolving power of an objective.

The principle of the method is stated by Professor Abbe in the following manner :-The lens is made to act as a telescopic objective by combining it either with the naked eye or with an auxiliary microscope equivalent to a terrestrial eye-piece, and by observing the images of external objects near the back focal plane of the lens. The angular field of the miniature telescope established in this way, is determined by observation, the real area of field in the microscopic action of the lens, or the central part of this area, being made to act as the area of aperture in telescopic vision. By this inversion the angular field in the telescopic action of the lens is made strictly identical with the angular aperture in its microscopic action. In order to get a determination of aperture not depending on the medium in which it is observed, the angular amount of the telescopic field is reduced, by a calculated scale, to a purely numerical value-the product of the sine of semi-aperture with the refractive index of the medium in which it is observed. This product is constant for different media (air, water, or balsam), and by its value in any objective indicates the limit of resolving power (the minimum distance of separable parts) in relation to the wavelength of light.

The apparatus consists of a semicircular disk of crown glass, 90 mm. (3.5 inches) in diameter, and 12 mm. (0.5 inch) in

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II.

FIG. 1.-Plan of Apertometer, full size. a, silvered cover with transparent centre; b, b, blackened brass indices. The inner scale shows the air-angle, the outer scale the "numerical aperture," by which a direct comparison can be made between dry and immersion objectives.

FIG. 2.-Elevation, showing position of one of the indices b. The image of the point is made to coincide with the margin of the field of view.

FIG. 3.-Section of examining glass, showing the position of its achromatic lens and diaphragm.

FIG. 4.-Diaphragm of examining glass.

FIG. 5.-One of the indices shown in perspective.

thickness, polished on the cylindrical edge, and ground to an angle of 45° in the direction of the diameter. This disk being put on the stage of a microscope, the rays admitted by the cylindrical edge of the disk horizontally are directed into the axis of the microscope by total reflexion. The centre of the semicircle is formed by a little hole in a silvered cover cemented to the upper face of the disk.

Two indices of blackened brass with sharp edges, sliding on the periphery of the disk, afford visible marks for observing the limits of telescopic field, or microscopic aperture, of any objective.

On the upper face of the disk there are two engraved scales; one of them showing the angular semi-aperture for air, the other the numerical indication of aperture as stated above.

A 2-inch object-glass, with a specially adjusted diaphragm above the lens, is added to the apparatus. It is to be adapted to a drawtube applied within the microscope, in order to get the telescopic eye-piece necessary for measuring the higher power objectives.

The management of the apparatus is as follows

The semicircular disk of crown glass is to be put on the stage of a microscope, and the objective, the aperture of which is to be measured (we will call it a), is roughly focussed to the little hole in the silvered cover-glass. In the case of an immersion lens a drop of water of course will be applied.

This done, the eye-piece of the microscope is taken off, without altering the position of the objective x. The naked eye, in looking down into the open tube, will now see above the objective a small air-image of the cylindrical edge of the glass disk and images of objects round the microscope, which are brought into the axis of the microscope by total reflexion.

If a is an objective of low power, from inch_downwards, the naked eye is sufficient for observing the aperture. For this purpose the two indices of black brass are put to the edge of the glass disk, and moved to and fro until the points of them as seen in the image above a just touch the margin of the illuminated field; i. e. appear or disappear, the pupil of the eye being kept in a central position. The position of the indices is read by their straight edges on the innermost scale of the disk. The half sum of both readings will give the semi air-angle of the objective x. For systems of higher power the image above the objective is too small for observation with the naked eye. In this case an auxiliary microscope is necessary for this observation, which is got by means of the draw-tube. The lens belonging to the apparatus (we will call it B) is screwed to the draw-tube and combined with one of the ordinary eye-pieces. The auxiliary microscope thus obtained, is focussed to the image above named, by moving the draw-tube up and down until the edge of the disk is seen quite distinctly. Now

the indices are adjusted, as before described, so that their sharp points just touch the margin of the circular field limited by the contour of the back lens of, or any diaphragm in æ. If the aperture is great enough, the indices should be brought to the disk in such a position as to touch the margin from within.

The position of the straight edges of the indices on the internal scale of the disk will give the semi air-angle of the objective a, as stated before. The external scale will give another definition of the aperture which is more abstract, and may be applied to those immersion lenses the angular aperture of which, taken in air, would surpass 180°; i. e. would be imaginary. This external scale will give the value of the product a = n. sin. w, n denoting the refractive index of any medium in front of the objective, and w the angle of semi-aperture belonging to the same medium. This quantity a, which Professor Abbe calls "numerical aperture," gives an absolute definition of aperture, which will not depend on the nature of the medium, supposed in front of the lens—air, water, or balsam; and by which lenses of every kind are directly comparable. This value, taken note of as above described, the middle of the readings of both the indices considered, will afford the angular semi-aperture w of the lens for any definite medium, by the formula

a

sin. w = -,

n

a denoting the number observed, n the index of the supposed medium.

For instance, the immersion lenses of Zeiss will give approximately,

α = = 1,1;

calculated for water (n = 1.333), for balsam (n = 1.50),

The internal scale gives the semi air-angle from 5-5 degrees, the external scale the value of a from 5-5 units of the second decimal; by estimate the single degrees and the units of the second decimal of a are easily deduced.

The exactness of the observation does not depend either on a very exact focussing to, or an exact centering of the hole in the silvered cover (the centre of which forms the geometric centre of the scales). It is sufficient if any point whatever of the hole is in

the field of vision of the objective x, the possible difference of centering being eliminated by taking the mean of the reading of both indices.

It is important in this method of measuring that, by the arrangement described, all "false rays," i. e. all rays which do not act in the formation of the ordinary microscopic image, which the objective a would produce, are excluded. If the observation is made with the naked eye, the pupil of the latter (which by its central position at the end of the tube will coincide with the ordinary image as seen in the eye-piece) acts as a diaphragm for this purpose. In the case of the auxiliary microscope the same effect is produced by a diaphragm above the achromatic lens, belonging to the apparatus. In observing the indices on the disk by the auxiliary microscope, this diaphragm excludes all rays besides those which would form the ordinary microscope image in the middle part of the field of vision. Therefore this diaphragm forms an essential part of the apparatus, and must be specially adjusted to the objective B, in diameter and position, in order to fulfil its task.

In the two scales the position of every line has been calculated, the calculation being based on the measured index of the crown glass forming the disk.

FOREIGN MICROSCOPY.

On the Orthonectida, a new Class of Animals parasitic on Echinodermata and Turbellaria. By M. A. Giard.*—The little Ophiuran, Ophiocoma neglecta, contains a singular parasite which may serve as the type of a whole group of animals of very curious organization and hitherto almost unknown. The following are the circumstances under which this parasite is met with. Ophiocoma neglecta is an Ophiuran with condensed embryogeny, or viviparous. The incubatory cavity, situated in the aboral part of the disk, communicates freely with the exterior; for the most advanced embryos contained in this cavity frequently present upon their arms a pretty Vorticella, which occurs almost always upon the arms of the parent animal. On tearing open the disk in order to extract the embryos from it, we find it, in certain individuals, filled with a multitude of animals like large ciliated Infusoria, which traverse the field of the microscope in a straight line, and with the rapidity of an arrow. The animals occur of two forms, which I shall name provisionally the elongated and the ovoid form. In both they are simple planule, that is to say, organisms composed only of two layers of cells-an exoderm or outer layer of ciliated cells, and an endoderm consisting of larger cells bounding a linear central cavity with no buccal aperture or anus. Notwithstanding this low organization, the body is metamerized, and the metameres even present remarkable differentiations. The first ring terminates anteriorly in a blunt cone, and bears a tuft of rigid setæ. It is followed by a cylindrical ring of the same length, the whole surface of which is roughened with papillæ, apparently disposed in ten longitudinal rows; this is the only part of the body which does not present vibratile cilia. The third ring is larger than the first two taken together; it widens gently towards its posterior extremity. The fourth metamere is of the same dimensions as the papilliferous ring, it is followed by a terminal ring, furnished with longer cilia at its posterior extremity, Iconical and subdivided into two metameres less distinct than the preceding ones. Such is the elongated form. The last rings form a sort of club with which the animal beats the water, independently of the movement of the cilia, and by sudden blows, which one might think due to the action of muscular elements. The ovoid form differs from the elongated form only in its less length and greater breadth; but I have ascertained that it is not the result of a contraction of the animal. Perhaps it is a sexual form, perhaps also a young state of the parasite. I give this strange animal the name of Rhopalura ophiocoma.†

Intracellular Fermentation.-In a note communicated to the French Academy by M. Muntz, reference is made to experiments of MM. Lechartier and Bellamy showing that fruits, roots, and leaves

From the Annals and Magazine of Natural History' for February, 1878. + Comptes Rendus,' October 29, 1877.