proved, it is necessary and significant to notice here that in the two hundred and fifty-eight cases of commune consilium now to be considered the spelling is uniform-always commune consilium, never commune concilium.

Undoubtedly the most common sense of commune consilium is that in which it approaches our phrase "public opinion", or general understanding, consent, or consultation, obtained in no definite or formal way. Often it is understood from the context that certain individuals, groups, or parties are referred to as the general opinion or consent of a crusading group; indeed it is very often used in connection with a fighting group or expedition of some sort, also of groups of messengers or ambassadors. Sometimes, however, it is impossible to tell from whom it is supposed to come. Of course in some of these cases the common advice may have been obtained possibly in formal meetings of the groups; but no hint of this is in the text, and the writer in his choice of language appears to have been uninfluenced by such association of ideas. This use is stable. Instances have been found pretty evenly distributed through material written all the way from the late eleventh century to the twelve-fifties, where the search ends. Ninety-two are listed here19 (including the illustrations which follow).

In the few illustrations that there is space to give of this or other uses, it is impossible to convey the full or correct impression,

10 Something of the distribution is shown here and in the other classes of cases by grouping the references into three periods, 1066-1154, 1154-1216, 12161250 (or later); and within the groups the references are arranged chronologically as far as can be readily determined.

1066-1154: Matthew Paris, II. 55; Ordericus Vitalis (in Migne, Patrologia, CLXXXVIII. 678, 686, 710); Matth. Paris, II. 85, 118; Eadmer, Historia Novorum, p. 287; Ord. Vit., pp. 497, 944; Florence of Worcester, Chronicon, II. 115; Gesta Stephani, pp. 71, 81. 1154-1216: Materials for the History of Thomas Becket, III. 74, 91; V. 160, 304; Benedictus, I. 19; Walter of Coventry, I. 198; Diceto, I. 384, 387, 431; Bigelow, Placita, p. 235; Wendover, I. 156; Diceto, II. 63, 65; Matth. Paris, II. 341; Map, De Nugis, p. 30; Itinerarium Peregrinorum, II. 161, 165; Walter of Coventry, I. 393; Itinerarium Peregrinorum, III. 229; V. 315; VI. 432; Benedictus, II. 110; Rigord, I. 111; Diceto, II. 103; Hoveden, III. 36; Giraldus Cambrensis, Opera, III. 212; IV. 400; Hoveden, IV. 19, 54, 67; Coventry, II. 134; Coggeshall, pp. 149, 150; Rot. Litt. Claus., I. 132 (bis); Rot. Litt. Pat., p. 133. 1216-1258: Ann. Waverley, p. 287; Coventry, II. 233; Patent Rolls, 1216-1225, pp. 22-23, 31, 54, 65, 141; Letters of Henry III., I. 36, 73; Rot. Litt. Claus., I. 475-476; Ann. Dunst., p. 64; Patent Rolls, pp. 481482; Letters of Henry III., I. 232 (ter); Patent Rolls, pp. 497-498; Ann. Dunst., p. 92; Patent Rolls, 1225-1232, pp. 25-26; Bracton, Note Book, II. 218; Patent Rolls, p. 397; Matth. Paris, III. 209 (bis); Ann. Dunst., p. 142; Matth. Paris, III. 563-564; IV. 339, 341; Ann. Burton, pp. 258, 260; Newburgh, II. 522; Letters of Henry III., II. 84; Matth. Paris, V. 360; Ann. Burton, p. 336; Matth. Paris, V. 519, 645; Ann. Burton, pp. 453, 465; Matth. Paris, V. 727.

as those who have ever done this kind of collecting will understand. A feeling of the inevitableness of certain conclusions grows only through intimate acquaintance with the long and monotonous list of contexts themselves. The very monotony tells its tale. On the first Crusade (1097): "Tandem innumeris hinc et inde interfectis, et maxime ex eis qui victualia quaerebant, deficientibus alimentis, dominus Boamundus et comes Flandrensis Robertus de communi consilio, ut pabula quaererent, exierunt." A quarrel between the canons and citizens of Rouen (1192):

Eodem anno orta est gravis dissensio inter clericos, scilicet canonicos, Rothomagi et cives civitatis. Canonici namque murum novum fecerant circa coemeterium suum, et colligerant intus mercatores: et visum erat civibus quod hoc fiebat ad detrimentum civitatis: et petierunt ut canonici prosternerent opus illud, et nolebant. Unde factum est quod quadam die cives ex communi consilio irruerunt, et murum illum funditus subverterunt.12

66

Article 6 in the apocryphal "Willelmi Articuli Londoniis Retractati" (1210): "Statuimus [here follow regulations about watch and ward] prout vicecomites et aldermanni et prepositi et ceteri ballivi et ministri nostri melius per commune consilium ad utilitatem regni providebunt."13 A letter of Robert Fitz-Walter to William of Albini in which he seems to be speaking for the baron's forces (1215): "Et ideo per commune consilium prolongavimus torneamentum quod captum fuit apud Stanford". In the same conflict (1217): 'Barones itaque cum, cimiteriis et ecclesiis omnibus more solito spoliatis per viam, ad castellum de Muntsorel pervenissent, et obsidionem dissolvissent, communi omnium consilio decretum est, ut versus Lincolniam properarent, ubi Gilebertus de Gant cum aliis baronibus supradictis diutinam obsidionem egerant, sed inanem."15 From a letter of Richard of Cornwall giving an account of his crusade (1241): "Infra quem terminum apud Acon, vigilia Sancti Dionisii, ut vobis alias significavimus, applicantes, de communi consilio, praedicto Nazer mox misimus inquirendum, si treugam cum dicto rege factam nobis posset tenere."16 Agitation of the bishops against the archbishop's visitation (1250): "Et sigillis suis scripto communi appensis, bona fide ad invicem promiserunt, quod communi auxilio et consilio archiepiscopo resisterent."1

11 Matth. Paris, II. 68.

12 Benedictus, II. 250.

13 Felix Liebermann, Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen, p. 490.

14 Matth. Paris, II. 614.

15 Ibid., III. 17.

16 Ibid., IV. 140.

17 Ann. Dunst., p. 181.

A second set of contexts is that in which the term denotes the mutual advice, consent, or opinion of relatively small groupsgroups which seem not to have constituted a summoned assembly and yet about which there is some definiteness of specification. That is, there is a clearer indication whence the common counsel came than in the preceding class. Perhaps the commonest illustration of this use lies in the many papal letters scattered through the English material. The pope does things by the common counsel of the cardinals. And the English writers regularly use the same expression when they refer to the papal acts. But there are many other examples. This use, like the preceding, remains quite stable throughout-no significant increase or decrease. Eighty-one instances have been collected.18 The following may serve to illustrate. From a letter to Henry II. by his envoys sent to Rome on the Becket matter (1171):

Cum vero nos quatuor cum episcopis [two] quidem, qui plurimum exire [from Sienna] desiderabant, non potuissemus, in maxima animi angustia positi, ex communi consilio media nocte et latenter exivimus. . . . Sic a curia venientes sero redierunt [two of the envoys] ad dominum papam, ei de communi nostro consilio exponentes quod nobis fuerat a vestra majestate injunctum . . . quod ea die immutabiliter disposuerat dominus papa in vos nominatim, et in totam terram vestram cismarinam et transmarinam, de communi fratrum consilio, interdicti ferre sententiam, et eam quae in episcopos lata fuerat confirmare.19

A certain case is to be tried in the locality (1226): "Et mandatum est vicecomiti Devonie quod certis die et loco, quos ipse et Wil

18 1066-1154: Bigelow, Placita, p. 66; Matth. Paris, II. 68; Eadmer, p. 219. 1154-1216: Materials for the History of Becket, IV. 58; V. 491; VI. 421; VII. 62, 371, 484, 500; Matth. Paris, II. 282-283; Thomas of Monmouth, St. William, pp. 23, 47, 110, 186; Diceto, I. 346, 368–369, 381; Matth. Paris, II. 292; Benedictus, I. 202, 208; Diceto, I. 425; Matth. Paris, II. 316; Hoveden, II. 269; Benedictus, I. 293; Giraldus Cambrensis, Opera, VII. 201; Diceto, II. 39-40; Benedictus, II. 19, 57; Itinerarium Peregrinorum, I. 27, 33; Giraldus Cambrensis, Opera, V. 355; VI. 68; Diceto, II. 75; Benedictus, II. 216; Placita, pp. 262, 282; Giraldus Cambrensis, Opera, III. 282; Hoveden, III. 275; Walter of Coventry, II. 80; Matth. Paris, II. 411; Diceto, II. 127; Hoveden, III. 292; Diceto, II. 141; Walter of Coventry, II. 107, 125; Rotuli Chart., pp. 38, 45-46 (ter-in five letters following this in the rolls there are fifteen uses of the term which are little more than formal repetitions in duplicate letters sent to other places); Coggeshall, p. 133; Rot. Litt. Claus., I. 64; Matth. Paris, II. 496 (bis); Stubbs, Select Charters (ninth ed.), pp. 279–280; Matth. Paris, II. 619; Rot. Litt. Claus., I. 184, 187, 188, 269; Rot. Litt. Pat., p. 126; Ann. Waverley, p. 283. 1216-1255: Rot. Litt. Pat., p. 190; Letters of Henry III., I. 69; Bracton, Note Book, II. 139–140; Rot. Litt. Claus., I. 532; Coventry, II. 274; Close Rolls, 1227-1231, p. 98; Patent Rolls, 1225-1232, p. 339, 362; Letters of Henry III., II. 11; Matth. Paris, VI. 69, 144, 145; Ann. Burton, p. 339.

19 Mat. for the Hist. of Becket, VII. 471-473.

arranges for an iter (1179): "Tunc rex congregatis episcopis et comitibus et proceribus regni apud Windesovers, communi eorum consilio,25 coram rege filio suo, divisit in quatuor partes Angliam ; et unicuique parti praefecit viros sapientes de regno; et postea misit eos per partes regni eis assignatas, ut justitiam exercerent in populo." An episode of the year 1201:

Statim post Pascha praecepit rex, ut comites et barones Angliae essent apud Portesmue ad Pentecosten, parati equis et armis ad transfretandum cum illo. . . . Interim comites Angliae convenerunt ad colloquium inter eos habitum apud Leicestre, et ex communi consilio mandaverunt regi quod non transfretarent cum illo, nisi ille reddiderit eis jura sua.27

From the writs announcing a tax (1207): “Sciatis quod per commune consilium et assensum concilii nostri apud Oxoniam, provisum est ad defensionem regni nostri et recuperationem juris nostri ".28 Wendover's summary of discussions at Rome between the ambassadors of Louis and the pope about the deposition of John (1216): "Item dicit Papa, quod de communi consilio generalis concilii [Fourth Lateran, 1215] excommunicaverat barones Angliae et omnes fautores eorum ".29 Beginning of a letter from King Henry to the Bishop of Durham (1225): "Rex Dunholm' Episcopo etc. salutem. Cum satis recolat discrecio vestra qualiter de communi consilio et spontanea voluntate Archiepiscoporum, Episcoporum, Comitum, et Baronum nostrorum quos generaliter ad presenciam nostram vocavimus concessa fuit nobis quintadecima rerum mobilium regni nostri ".30 From a similar letter (1233): "Rex abbati de Coggeshal' salutem. Satis vobis constat et bene recolitis qualiter de communi consilio et unanimi assensu omnium magnatum de regno nostro, tam episcoporum quam comitum, baronum, abbatum et priorum, concessum fuit nobis ab ipsis auxilium".31 Concerning the assembly at Merton which enacted the so-called statute. of that name (1236):

Rex Archiepiscopis Episcopis Abbatibus Prioribus Comitibus Baronibus Militibus et omnibus libere tenentibus in Hibernia constitutis Salutem. Sciatis quod in presentia venerabilis patris E. Cant' Archiepiscopi Episcoporum Abbatum Comitum et Baronum de Regno nostro

25 By a misprint this word appears concilio in the Rolls Series edition; but an examination of the manuscript has shown the regular spelling.

26 Ibid., I. 238.

27 Hoveden, IV. 160-161.

28 Rot. Litt. Pat., I. 72.

29 Matth. Paris, II. 662.

30 Rot. Litt. Claus., II. 75.

31 Close Rolls, 1231-1234, p. 311.