civic or military services, such as each State shall deem worthy of this national commemoration; and when so furnished the same shall be placed in the old hall of the House of Representatives, in the Capitol of the United States, which is hereby set apart, or so much thereof as may be necessary, as a national statuary hall, for the purposes herein indicated.

Up to 1904 statues to the number of 27 have been contributed by 16 States. New York has contributed two in bronze - Robert R. Livingston, by E. D. Palmer, and George Clinton, by H. K. Brown. New Jersey has set up two Richard Stockton, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, in marble, and Philip Kearny, a major-general in the Civil War, in bronze, both by H. K. Brown. Pennsylvania has furnished two in marble-Robert Fulton, the inventor of the steamboat, by Howard Roberts, and John P. Muhlenberg, of Revolutionary fame, by Blanche Nevin. Massachusetts is likewise represented by two in marble-John Winthrop, first governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, by Richard S. Greenough, and Samuel Adams, the Revolutionary organizer, by Anne Whitney. Rhode Island has also supplied two works in marble-Roger Williams, by Franklin Simmons, and Nathaniel Greene, by H. K. Brown. Connecticut has sent two-Jonathan Trumbull, the first governor, Washington's "Brother Jonathan," and Roger Sherman, both by C. B. Ives. Vermont also has supplied two in marbleEthan Allen, by Larkin C. Mead, and Jacob Collamer, an early Senator, by Preston Powers. New Hampshire has contributed two in marble - Daniel Webster, born in the Granite State, and John Stark, of Bennington fame. They were modeled by Carl Conrads after statues in bronze in the State House Park at Concord. The original Webster statue was by Ball; that of Stark was by Conrads. Maine, the remaining New England State, has presented a marble statue of her first governor, William King, by Franklin Simmons. Ohio has furnished two in marble-James A. Garfield and William Allen, a Buckeye governor, both the work of Niehaus. Missouri has likewise furnished two in marble, representing Thomas H. Benton and Francis P. Blair, both by Alexander Doyle. Indiana has contributed one, representing her war governor and Senator, Oliver P. Morton, in marble; Illinois one James Shields, Senator and soldier, in bronze, by Leonard W. Volk; Michigan one -Lewis Cass, by Daniel C. French; Wisconsin one- Pere James Marquette, pioneer and missionary, by G. Trentenove; Virginia one, a plaster statue of George Washington, supposed to have been made from life by the celebrated French sculptor, Jean Antoine Houdon, and West Virginia one- John E. Kenna, Senator.

Statute, a law proceeding from the government of a state; a written law. Some ancient statutes in Europe are in the form of charters or ordinances, proceeding from the crown. Statutes are either public or private (in the latter case affecting an individual or a company); but the term is usually restricted to public acts of a general and permanent character. Statutes are said to be declaratory of the law as it stood before their passing; remedial, to correct defects in the common law; and penal, imposing prohibitions and penalties. The term statute is commonly applied to the acts of a legislative body consisting of representatives. In monarchies not having representative bodies, the

laws of the sovereign are called edicts, decrees, ordinances, rescripts, etc. See LAW.

Staunton, stân'ton, Howard, English Shakespearian editor and pre-eminent as a chess-player: b. England 1810; d. London 22 June 1874. He was educated at Oxford after leaving which he settled in London, and debecoming the champion chess-player of his day. voted himself to literary pursuits, and to chess, His first important publications were The Chess-player's Hand-book' (1847); Chessplayer's Companion and Chess-player's Textbook (1849); Chess Tournament' (1852); Chess Praxis' (1860). Before the appearance of the last work he had begun the publication of an edition of Shakespeare, 1857-60, which scholars of the day to furnish the best text was generally considered by the Shakespearian that had till then been published. Later studies were given to the world in a series of papers Text, begun in the Athenæum in October on Unsuspected Corruptions of Shakespeare's 1872, and continued to the time of his death. He published Great Schools of England (1865), and from 1844 till his death edited the chess column in the Illustrated London News. Theory and Practice of Chess,' by Staunton and Wormald, appeared in 1876.

The

Staunton, Va., city, county-seat of Augusta County; on the Chesapeake & Ohio and on the Valley Branch of the Baltimore & Ohio railroads; about 40 miles northwest of Charlottesville and 55 miles north of Lynchburg. It was settled in 1745 by people from the northern part of Ireland. In 1802 it was incorporated and in 1871 it was chartered as a city. From its importance as a strategical point Staunton became the objective point of many campaigns of the Civil War, but was not occupied by the Union troops until 6 June 1864, when Gen. Hunter entered the place without opposition and, after destroying the railroad several miles east and west of the place, and burning much public property and many warehouses, marched toward Lynchburg. (See PIEDMONT, BATTLE OF.) It was again occupied by Gen. Sheridan's cavalry 2 March 1865, and the railroad and public property were again destroyed. (See WAYNESBOROUGH, BATTLE OF; MCDOWELL, BATTLE OF; SHENANDOAH VALLEY, MILITARY OPERhas considerable manufacturing interests. The ATIONS IN.) It is in an agricultural region and ical works, canneries, foundry, and other inchief manufacturing establishments are chemdustrial works connected with farming and farm products. The principal public buildings are the Western State Hospital for Lunatics, the Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind, 16 churches, and the schools. The educational institutions are the State school mentioned, the Mary Baldwin Seminary, Virginia Female Institute, Staunton Military Academy, two business colleges, two other private schools, and public and parish schools. The four banks have a combined capital of $600,000; the annual amount of business is $30,000,000. The government is vested in a mayor and a council of 12 members, each of whom holds office two years. Pop. (1910) 10,604.

about

Staunton, a river of Virginia which has its rise in Montgomery County, and flows east across Roanoke County, reaching the Blue

Ridge, through which it breaks, forming picturesque scenery. The descent is rapid; it falls 1,000 feet in 20 miles. It unites with the Dan River at Clarksville, Mecklenburg County, to form the Roanoke; length, 200 miles.

Staurolite, Staurotide, or Cross-stone, a mineral very frequently found in cross-shaped, penetration twins, whence its name (from stauros, a cross; lithos, a stone). It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, the simple crystals being short prisms. Besides the twins above mentioned other forms abound. The crystals are usually rough and of a dark reddish-brown to brownish-black color. Hardness 7 to 7.5; specific gravity, 3.65 to 3.75; lustre somewhat resinous. It is a silicate of aluminum, iron, and magnesium. It abounds in many of the crystalline schists, such as mica schist, argillaceous schist, and gneiss. Important occurrences are Monte Campione, Switzerland, and Fannin County, Georgia; there are scores of localities in New England and North Carolina. It occurs sparingly in Brazil and North Carolina in transparent fragments which yield gems remarkable for their green to reddish-brown pleochroism.

Stavanger, stä-väng'ger, Norway, capital of Stavanger County, a seaport on Bukken Fjord, 105 miles northwest of Christiansand. It has two excellent harbors with quays and docks, and is protected by islands. The Bay of Dusevik is a rendezvous for warships, and is visited more than any other port of Norway by merchant vessels. The principal buildings are the ancient Gothic cathedral, Saint Peter's Church, several schools, museum, hospital, and mechanics' institute. The chief articles of export are herrings, anchovies, lobsters, sheep, marble, torsks, oil, and hides. There are some manufactures of cloth and pottery, and distilleries, ship-building yards, a repairing slip, and foundries. Kjelland, the novelist, was born at Sta

vanger.

Stavesacre, a larkspur (Delphinium staphisagria), native to the Mediterranean region, whose seeds have been used medicinally since ancient times. It is a pubescent plant, about two feet high, with purplish flowers in terminal racemes. The seeds are grayish brown, reticulated with ridges, oily, and have an acrid and biting taste. They contain the poisonous principle delphinine, but were used as a purgative and emetic; being too powerful, their use at present is confined to an external remedy, in tincture, for rheumatism, and, in powder or ointment, are employed for killing parasitic vermin.

Stavropol, stäv'ro-poly, Russia, in the Caucasus, (1) capital of the government of Stavropol, on the Atchla, 307 miles southwest of Astrakhan. It is the seat of a Greek-Catholic bishop and is a well-built town. The schools include gymnasia for both sexes, and several town and industrial schools; there are also several libraries, and a people's palace. The manufactures comprise soap, leather, and flour-mills, and there is considerable trade in hides, tallow, and corn. The town was founded in 1776, and, on the commercial route between Russia and Persia, has flourished. Pop. about 47,000. (2) The government of Stavropol covers 23.398 square miles. The rainfall is scant, forests rare, the fauna and flora differ from other sections of the Caucasus, somewhat resembling Central Asia. The inhabitants include Arme

VOL. 19 32

nians, Greeks, Poles, Russians, etc., about one third being nomadic. On the wide prairies agriculture is carried on, and for this purpose various machines and implements are manufactured, and the products form the exports. Interesting is the communal tillage of lands, for the reserve fund of grain. The main streams are the Kuma and tributaries, and in this section are the best lands. The Mantych is a lakeformed river, once a connecting link between the Black and Caspian seas. Near the Caspian are some unimportant salt lakes. Other small streams water the country at the west. The climate is characterized by sudden changes. Stavropol was early colonized but unsuccessfully, until the military colonies of Cossacks (1711) were established. After the emancipation of the serfs, immigration increased rapidly, and still grows.

Stawell, stä'ël, Australia, a town of Victoria, 176 miles by rail northwest of Melbourne. The chief buildings are the municipal offices, some churches, mechanics' institute, and theatre. The great quartz reefs of the Pleasant Creek gold-fields are extensively exploited, and large cyanide works are operated. Agriculture is an important industry, especially wheat, and vineculture is carried on.

Stead, stěd, William Thomas, English journalist: b. Embleton 5 July 1849; d. at sea 15 April 1912. His father was a Congregational clergyman. He became editor of the Northern Echo' 1871; assistant editor Pall Mall Gazette, 1880, and in January 1890 founded the 'Review of Reviews. In July 1885 he published 'The Maiden Tribute to Modern Babylon.' For some of his acts in procuring evidence for this book he was arrested and imprisoned for three months. In 1893 he founded 'Borderland,' a magazine devoted to occult subjects. He wrote If Christ Came to Chicago'; 'The Pope and the New Era'; 'No Rent'; 'No Reduction'; Truth About Russia,' etc.

Steam. Steam is water in a gaseous state. It liquefies at a temperature of 100° C., or 212° F., under a pressure of one atmosphere at the sea-level, namely, 14.7 pounds per square inch. High pressure and low pressure steam once meant steam used at pressures above or below this point, but the terms have lost their significance. The standard of steam pressure in engines is constantly rising, and high or low pressure are terms understood to-day as of no permanent value. "Absolute steam pressure is the total pressure computed from the zero of an absolute vacuum, as distinguished from relative pressure at sea-level. Ordinary steamgauges indicate pressure above that of the atmosphere. To this must be added the pressure of the atmosphere in order to obtain the absolute steam pressure."

Saturated steam or wet steam is steam holding water in suspension mechanically, or steam in contact with water at the same temperature, which is the case at its condensing or boiling point.

"When the pressure exerted by the vapor which a space contains at a given temperature has reached the limiting value for that temperature, the space is said to be saturated with the vapor. When a space is saturated with vapor the pressure exerted by the vapor is also known as saturation pressure. If the volume

of a space which is saturated with vapor be reduced, some of the vapor is condensed to a liquid state, but the pressure remains the same."

"If the volume of the space be increased, provided that it contains sufficient liquid, more water evaporates and the pressure exerted by the water vapor soon attains the same value as before the change of volume."

"If the temperature of a space containing water, and its saturated vapor be raised, the saturation pressure of the vapor is increased; if on the other hand the temperature falls, some of the vapor is condensed, and the saturation pressure is less."

Superheated steam or steam-gas is steam not in contact with water, heated until it resembles a perfect gas. Dry steam is steam withut any admixture of water vapor held me

great care by Regnault. Upon these determinations the practical application of steam depends in large measure. The following table compiled from Rankine's reduction of Regnault's results gives the relations between pressure, volume, and total heat of steam for temperatures between 32° F. and 428° F.

"During the first stage of heating, all the heat sensibly goes into increasing the internal energy of the fluid. This is represented in the last column of the table under the heading h. During the second stage the heat taken in is known as latent heat of steam. The total heat of both stages is represented by the numbers in the fourth column of the table under the heading 'H.'»

Pressure

ture

Volume of one pound

is

1176.8

281.1

320

89.86

4.816

1179.5

290.3

1182.2

299.5b

347 129.8

3.410

1187.7

356 145.8

318.0

327.3

365

163.3

2.748

1193.2

374 182.4

336.6

345-9

383

203.3

352.2

364.5

373-9

1206.9

383.2

1209.6

392.6

1.393

Aanically in suspension. "Live steam» steam which has performed no work, or rather which is available for the performance of work. Dead steam is steam which has performed work; more frequently it is called exhaust steam.

Vaporization.- When heat is applied to water, a point is reached at which the heat overcomes the cohesion and the pressure of the atmosphere, then the water passes into vapor. Evaporation takes place at the surface of the water. Its rapidity varies with the temperature and the pressure upon that surface. When a flask containing water (see Fig. 1) is placed over the flame of a lamp, the absorbed air is first driven off, then as the temperature of the water rises, the liquid molecules in contact with the bottom of the flask become so hot that the heat is able to overcome their cohesion, the pressure of the overlying water, and the pressure of the atmosphere above the water. At this temperature the change from a liquid to a gaseous state takes place beneath the surface, the gas escaping with ebullition.

The temperature at which steam is formed depends on the pressure under which it is generated. This relation has been determined with

Dulong and Arago determined the tension of steam many years ago by means of the apparatus shown in Fig. 2.

In the figure (k) is a copper boiler, with a tube (a) containing a thermometer (t), which measures the temperature of the water, and its vapor. The tension of the steam is measured by a manometer (m). The steam passing through the tube (c), exerts a pressure on a column of water in the tube (i). This pressure is further transmitted to the mercury in the vessel (d), and thence to the manometer. By taking the manometer readings corresponding to each degree of the thermometer, a direct

ing 1,800,000 tons of steam which passes through our engines daily. A large amount of steam is used, in addition to this, for heating purposes. Its value in this respect is due to its being able to carry more heat for a given weight than any other substance, and when it has given up its heat to drop out of the way, by condensation, and make way for a fresh supply. It is roughly estimated that the amount of steam used in the city of New York alone, for heating purposes, is 18,000,000 tons per year, and in the United States about 10 times as much.

It is pertinent to ask what becomes of it ultimately? Nature provides for its absorption in the air, and it is probable that large as it is, it forms but a small fraction of the moisture in the atmosphere. JOHN R. PADDOCK, Member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Steam and Steam-engines. Steam, the vapor of water, has special interest as the working substance of the steam-engine, the principal source of power for industrial purposes through

M

out the world, and hitherto, at least, throughout the history of modern industry. Steam is produced in the steam-boiler under constant pressure, that required for the steamengine to which it is accessory and limited by the adjustment of the safety - valve. When the feed-water enters the boiler, it promptly passes into Hero's Steam-turbine (120 circulation and gradB.C.). A B, steam boiler; ually assumes the CD, supports; a, revolving globe; HK, nozzles. temperature of the great mass of water of which it forms a part. This rise of temperature is by continuous accession of heat until, the temperature of the steam at the existing pressure being attained, its temperature becomes constant and the inflow of heat takes effect in vaporization, steam being produced in proportion to the heat received. Steam thus produced is said to be "saturated"; if containing no suspended water, as mist, it is "dry and saturated." If, after separation from the water in the boiler, it passes through a "superheater" in which additional heat is imparted, it is said to be superheated, and, behaving as would a gas, it rises in temperature above that due the pressure for saturated steam and its excess of temperature is proportional, very nearly, to the quantity of heat absorbed.

The existing definite relations between the temperature, pressure, and volume of saturated steam may be expressed with close approximation by simple formulas. Superheated steam may be regarded as a gas, if not too near the temperature of saturation, and these relations may be precisely expressed as with gases in general. The relation of the temperature of water to influx of heat is also definite.

The quantity of heat required to raise unit weight of water through a stated range of temperature, T-T1, is:

Q=C(T-T1); H=J(T2-T1);

396945

T2

T

the units being pounds on the square inch and temperatures Fahrenheit on the absolute scale. Regnault's formula, with constants corrected by Moritz, is log=A+Bat - Cbt; where for metric measures and for the scale between the freezing and boiling points, A 4.7393707; log B=8.1319907112-10; log C 0.6117407675; log a=0.006864937152; log b 9.996725536856-10. Above the boiling point, Regnault gives log p-A-Bax-Cbx, in which log a=9.994049292-10; log b=9.998343862 -10; log A=6.2640348; log B=0.1397743; log C 0.6924351. Pressures are in millimetres of mercury; x=t+20, metric.

"Steam-Tables" are given in all treatises on this subject, usually based upon Regnault, and supplemented with columns of data relating temperatures, volumes and pressures to the latent heats. Volumes were determined by Fairbairn and Tait, but are most exactly obtained by thermodynamic computation.

The production of steam in closed chambers involves the expansion of water against external and internal resistances with constant but slight change of volume and with increasing pressure upon the confining walls from minima