in American cooking, and public kitchens and cooking-schools might be of great benefit. Serious injury is being caused by insufficient or improper food. Instruction in cooking and diet should be given in all public schools where young girls attend. For nine out of ten girls that attend these schools it will be a greater blessing, and they personally will prove a greater blessing to the community, if they know how to prepare a roast, boil potatoes and make an omelet, than if, ignorant in these things, they can give the most scholarly translation of Vergil. In Germany it is not considered below the dignity of daughters of the highest families, even those directly connected with royalty, to attend cooking schools. Nor is such an education incompatible with the best scientific and classical training. So the prevention of diseases of the stomach demands a wider and more thorough knowledge of the art of cooking. In addition to this, it necessitates a simpler life, closer adherence to the laws of nature, more freedom from business strain and nervous tension, and above all things the avoidance of excess in the use of alcoholic beverages and tobacco. Patients should be impressed with the fact that neither drugs nor any methods of treatment can improve them if they persist in their bad habits and faulty diet. Particularly must American business men, who, with admirable energy, but with little regard for their own health, persist in work too severe for their mental and physical constitutions, be taught

pation. This should in all cases of dyspepsia receive proper attention. When a person begins to feel distress after eating, or eructates, vomits, or has feelings of oppression, fulness or pain in the abdomen and headaches, one of the first treatments that is usually given by sympathizing friends is a drink of some alcoholic beverage, usually whiskey; then comes the abuse of pepsin; very frequently the abuse of some combination containing soda and mint, or some widely advertised panacea for the diseases of digestion. All this is generally being done in the entire absence of a correct recognition of the real disease. The safest thing for the patient to do in the absence of a logical diagnosis is to rest the stomach absolutely for 24 to 48 hours, and not take any food or medicine whatsoever; and thereafter, beginning with the very simplest kind of fooda small plate of farina, of strained oatmeal, a piece of toast, and a cup of hot milk and limewater-proceed gradually to a cup of bouillon, and a small slice of lean boiled beef. Alcohol, sugars, rich and fatty substances should be avoided for some time.

Organic Diseases of the Stomach. These are the various forms of gastritis (catarrh of stomach, ulcer, carcinoma, etc.) and the displacements and enlargements, dilatation. Displacements-gastroptosis-may be congenital or acquired. When the stomach is displaced from its normal position, the condition is in the great majority of cases accompanied with an infirmity

e

of the general nervous system known as neurasthenia (q.v.). Stiller has pointed out that this condition in over 80 per cent of these cases is attended by the loose or floating tenth rib. Normally the tenth rib is attached to the costal cartilages, and these to the breast-bone. But whenever the stomach is displaced out of its normal position and a very diffused splashing sound is audible over the abdomen on shaking the stomach, there is, as a rule, a very movable or floating tenth rib.

Dilatations of the stomach may be primary, due to disease of the structure of the gastric walls. In these cases there is, as a rule, no mechanical interference at the outlet of the stomach, or such interferences are secondary to some obstruction at the outlet. The causes of this obstruction may be scars from old gastric ulcers; tumors, especially cancers; indurative chronic gastritis; or any peritonitic inflammation which may constrict the stomach from the outside. Frequently gall-stones which result in pericystic inflammation may constrict the part of the bowel immediately below the stomach in such a manner that it is indistinguishable from an obstruction of the pylorus. Five such cases are recently reported in 'Progressive Medicine, by Prof J. C. Hemmeter, December 1903, p. 45. So the cause of a dilated stomach is not always to be sought within the stomach itself.

A knowledge of displacements and dilatations of the stomach necessarily precludes a knowledge of its normal position. This is admirably

depicted in the accompanying illustrations where it is seen that the larger end of the stomach, or the blind pouch, may extend higher than the fifth rib, on the left side, thus reaching up behind the apex of the heart. This readily explains the distress felt about the heart, and also the irritable heart-action in some forms of gastric disturbance. The anterior view of this illustration also shows the correct or normal relations of the tenth rib just referred to in connection with gastroptosis. When the tenth rib is detached or floating its tip sticks out like that of the eleventh rib in this illustration. The same illustrations also demonstrate the anatomical

fact that only a very small portion of the stomach is palpable through the soft part of the abdominal wall, when it is in normal position, because the larger part of it is concealed under the ribs and under the liver. So that the simple fact that we can see or feel a large part of the entire stomach projecting through the abdominal wall, when it is distended, is a sufficient evidence that the stomach is out of place. The stomach can be made visible through the abdominal wall by distending it artificially with carbon dioxide by means of an effervescent mixture containing tartaric acid and bicarbonate of

soda.

The remaining organic diseases of the stomach necessitate all the intricacies of chemical and microscopical diagnosis for their detection. They include the various forms of acute and chronic gastric catarrh or, as they should preferably be called, the forms of acute and chronic gastritis, the various types of gastric or peptic ulcers, the various tumors of the stomach, especially cancer, which is becoming more and more frequent. Then there are numerous diseases of a general nature, such as tuberculosis, typhoid fever, glanders, lymphadenoma and syphilis, to be considered in the study and treatment of disorders of the stomach.

Whenever there is an organic disease of the stomach present it should be sought after with all the resources of modern clinical diagnosis, There should be no dallying with so-called stomach panaceas. Quite a number of the socalled incurable gastric diseases which have been allowed to go on to destruction of the glandular layer and absolute loss of peristalsis of the stomach are not incurable in themselves, but have become so from neglect, maltreatment, or procrastination. And even in those cases in which the practitioner is at present helpless, the rapid progress of medical art, especially as applicable to digestive diseases, promises a substantial gain in the near future.

Bibliography.- Hemmeter, 'Diseases of the Stomach, in which there are 1,288 separate publications arranged categorically in separate chapters to which they refer especially, and over 1,000 references in the text; Ewald, Diseases of the Stomach, translated into English by Morris Manges; Boas, Diagnostik und Therapie der Magenkrankheiten'; Riegel, Erkrankungen des Magens,' being Vol. XVI. of Nothnagel's Encyclopedia on special Pathology and Therapy'; Fleiner, Krankheiten der Verdauungsorgane'; Einhorn, 'Diseases of the Stomach'; Martin, 'Diseases of the Stomach'; Abercrombie, 'Investigations on Diseases of the Stomach'; Habershon, 'Diseases of the Abdomen'; Rosenheim, Pathologie u. Therapie des Verdauung

apparats'; Pick, Magenkrankheiten'; Brouardel et Gilbert, Traité de Médecine et de Therapeutique, Vol. IV.; Mathieu, Traité de Maladies de l'Estomac'; Hemmeter, 'Organic Diseases of the Stomach'; Leo, Krankheiten der Bauchorgane'; Robin, Traité de Therapeutique appliquée, fasc. XII. (article on indigestion by G. LeMoine). The modern literature of diseases of the stomach, intestine, liver, etc., up to 1904, is reviewed by John C. Hemmeter in Progressive Medicine," December 1903, pp. 1-84.

JOHN C. HEM METER, M.D., PH.D., Professor in University of Maryland. used for removing matter from the stomach, for Stom'ach-pump, a small pump or syringe washing it out, or for injecting fluids into it. that there are two apertures near the end, It resembles the common small syringe, except instead of one, which, by means of valves in them opening different ways, serve respectively as a sucking and a forcing passage. When the object is to extract something from the stomach, the pump is worked while its sucking orifice is in connection with an elastic tube passed into the stomach; and the extracted matter escapes by the forcing orifice. When it is desired to throw cleansing water or other liquid into the the tubes is reversed. A pump may not be alstomach, the connection of the apertures and ways procurable when the occasion for it arises, and a simple tube will in many cases answer the purpose as well, if not better. If the tube be introduced, and the body of the patient be so placed that the tube forms a downward channel from the stomach, all fluid matter will escape from the stomach by it, as water escapes from a funnel by its pipe; and if the outer end of the tube be immersed in liquid, there will be, during the discharge, a siphon action of some force. On changing the posture of the body, water may be poured in through the same tube to wash the stomach. For washing out the stomach a long flexible tube is also in common use, water being run in by means of a funnel attached to one end, and this end being afterward lowered so as to form the tube into a siphon.

Stomata, minute orifices or pores in the epidermis of leaves, etc., which open directly into the air cavities pervading the parenchyma.

See LEAVES.

Stomati'tis. See MOUTH, DISEASES OF THE.

Stone, Amasa, American business man and philanthropist: b. Charlton, Mass., 27 April 1818; d. Cleveland, Ohio, 11 May 1883. At 21 he engaged in the construction of railroad bridges and railroads, and soon attained high rank among constructors. In 1846 he entered into a partnership for the building of the Cleveland, Columbus & Cincinnati Railroad; in 1850 he was made president of that road and thenceforward resided in Cleveland. He was later engaged in the construction of the Cleveland & Erie Railroad; was managing director of the Lake Shore Railroad in 1872-4; and was president or director of several railroads and industrial corporations in Ohio. He gave largely to charitable institutions in Cleveland, and built and endowed an old ladies' home, and an industrial school. He also gave to Western Reserve University $600,000, on condition that the university should be moved from Hudson to Cleve

land, and that the classical department should be named in memory of his son, Adelbert College.

Stone, Charles Pomeroy, American soldier: b. Greenfield, Mass., 30 Sept. 1824; d. New York 24 Jan. 1887. He was graduated from West Point in 1845; served in the Mexican War and was brevetted captain; was chief of ordnance of the division of the Pacific; and subsequently settled in California. At the opening of the Civil War he became an officer of volunteers in the Union army, but after a short term of service was arrested, and was imprisoned in Fort Lafayette, New York harbor, February-August 1862. Upon his release he served in the Department of the Gulf, and was chief of staff to Gen. Banks, 1863-4. Later in the year he resigned from the army. He entered the service of the khedive of Egypt in 1870. rose from brigadier-general and chief of staff to be Ferik-Pasha, 1873-83, received numerous decorations and held confidential positions under the khedive. Returning to the United States he became the engineer in charge of building the foundation for the Statue of Liberty in New York harbor.

Stone, Edward James, English astronomer: b. London 1831; d. Oxford 1897. He was graduated from Queen's College, Cambridge, and in 1860 was appointed chief assistant at the Greenwich Observatory. In 1870 he was made royal astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope, in which position he prepared a catalogue of all stars to the 7th magnitude between the south pole and 25° S. declination. This he supplemented in 1891 by a catalogue of all stars to the 7th magnitude between 25° S. declination and the equator. In 1879 he was appointed Radcliffe observer at Oxford, holding the position till his death. Among his contributions to astronomical science were his deduction of the value of the solar parallax and his observation of the reversal of the Fraunhofer spectrum during an eclipse of the sun in 1874.

Stone, Ellen Maria, American missionary: b. Roxbury, Mass., 24 July 1846. She was a member of the staff of the Congregationalist' at Boston in 1867-8, in 1878 went to Samokov as a Congregational missionary, and was removed subsequently to Philippopolis, southern Bulgaria, and (1898) Salonica, Macedonia. In September 1901 she was kidnapped by brigands between Bansko and Djumia, Macedonia, and a ransom of $110,000 for her and Mme. Tsilka, captured at the same time, was demanded. By subscription in the United States, $65,000 was raised and the release of the prisoners followed. Her narrative appeared as 'Six Months Among Brigands' in McClure's' in May-October 1902, and in 1903 in book form.

Stone, Frank, English painter: b. Manchester 22 Aug. 1800; d. London 18 Nov. 1859. He originally painted in water colors, and in 1837 became a contributor to the exhibitions of the Royal Academy, Subsequently for more than 20 years he produced many works in genre and history, and on subjects of sentiment and imagination. Some of these are well known by engravings, particularly the companion pieces entitled The First Appeal' and 'The Last Appeal, once very popular. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1851.

Stone, James Samuel, American Protestant Episcopal clergyman: b. England 27 April 1852. He was graduated from the Philadelphia Divinity School 1877, took orders, and was ordained and was rector of St. Philip's Church, Toronto, 1879-82, of St. Martin's Church, Montreal, 1882-6, of Grace Church, Philadelphia, 1886-95, and of St. James' Church, Chicago, since 1895. He has published Simple Sermons on Simple Subjects' (1879); 'The Heart of Merrie England' (1887); Readings in Church History) (1889); From Frankfort to Munich' (1894).

Stone, Lucy Blackwell, American reformer: b. West Brookfield, Mass., 13 Aug. 1818; d. Boston 18 Oct. 1893. She was graduated at Oberlin College in 1847 and in 1855 was married to Dr. Henry B. Blackwell, retaining, however, her own name. In 1869 she helped organize the American Woman's Suffrage Association; became connected with the Woman's Journal' in 1872, and was editor after 1888. Her lectures on woman suffrage made her known throughout the country.

Stone, Marcus, English painter: b. London 4 July 1840. He is a son of Frank Stone, A.R.A. He learned his art in his father's studio; exhibited his first picture in 1858 in the Academy, of which he became an associate in 1877, being elected an academician in 1887. Among his better-known pictures are: Claudio Accuses Hero' (1861); On the Road from Waterloo to Paris (1862); Stealing the Keys' (1866); Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn' (1870); 'Sain et Sauf) (1875); Il y en a toujours un autre (1882); A Gambler's Wife' (1885); and The First Love Letter' (1889).

ventor: b. Portage County, Ohio, 1842: d. WashStone, Marvin Cheater, American inington, D. C., 17 May 1899. He invented several small articles, and afterward discovered famous "peach-blow" vase. He acquired a large a method of imitating, in colored china, the fortune, and during his later years was engaged in many philanthropic undertakings.

Stone, Melville Elijah, American journalist: b. Hudson, Ill., 22 Aug. 1848. He began his journalistic career on the Chicago Tribune, but was not permanently settled in it until 1871, when he established the Chicago Daily News. In 1881, with Victor F. Lawson, he acquired the Chicago Morning News, changing its name to the Record. In 1888 he retired temporarily from newspaper work, and spent some years in Europe, and upon his return entered the banking business. In 1898 he became general manager of the Associated Press.

Stone, Ormond, American astronomer: b. Pekin, Ill., 11 Jan. 1847. He was graduated at the University of Chicago, and soon after was made assistant astronomer at the Naval Observatory at Washington. In 1882 he was appointed professor of astronomy and director of the observatory at the University of Virginia. He is the founder and editor of the Annals of Mathematics, published by that institution, and a contributor to various scientific journals. He has made several important discoveries concerning nebula and double stars.

Stone, Thomas, American patriot, signer of the Declaration of Independence: b. Pointon Manor, Charles County, Md., 1743; d. 5 Oct.

1787. He studied law at Annapolis, and began to practise at Frederickton in 1764. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1775-7, and served as a member of the Committee on Confederation (1776-7); and in 1777 he urged Maryland to ratify the Articles of Confederation, which, however, the State did not do until three years later. In 1783-4 Stone was again a delegate to the Continental Congress, and in the latter year acted as president pro tem. Consult Sanderson, Signers of the Declaration of Independence, Vol. IX. (1823-7).

Stone, William Leete, American historical writer. b. New York 4 April 1835; d. Mt. Vernon, N. Y., II June 1908. He graduated from Brown University in 1858 and in 1859 was admitted to the bar. He was centennial historian for New York and made the speech at Independence Hall, 10 May 1876. He published The Life and Times of Sir William Johnson, Bart.'; Revolutionary Letters'; 'History of New York City'; 'The Saratoga Battle Grounds': 'Life of Gov. George Clinton'; etc. Stone, Witmer, American naturalist: b. Philadelphia 22 Sept. 1866. He was educated at the University of Pennsylvania, and was assistant curator in charge of the museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. He has published Birds of Eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey) (1894); The Molting of Birds'; etc.

Stone. (1) A small piece or fragment of rock; a piece of rock adapted in size and shape for a specific purpose, as for building, etc. (See BUILDING STONE.) (2) In medicine, a calculous concretion in the bladder, kidney, etc. (See CALCULUS.) (3) A denomination of weight,

See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

Stone Age, or Age of Stone, in archæology, a period in the history of a people when they employed as material for their cutting tools and weapons stone, they being unacquainted

a high state of culture many centuries before the Christian era. In Europe the progress of early culture was from the south and east to the north and west; hence the emergence out of the stone age was accomplished earlier in the south and east of Europe than in the north and west. The period of the stone age of European populations cannot be defined even approximately in terms of chronology. But in England, Belgium and France, and across the

Carved reindeer horn.

continent to the shores of the Mediterranean, the men of the stone age were contemporary with animals now either wholly extinct or locally extinct, as the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, cave lion, cave bear, etc. It is an open question to what extent this change of fauna implies a change of climate; but from the geological conditions in which the flint implements of the rudest types occur it is evident that, though extensive changes must have taken place since they were deposited in the river basins, they all belong to the later deposits of the Quaternary period. The stone implements of Europe are divided into two classes - Palæolithic (or older stone) implements and Neolithic (or newer stone) implements. The palaeolithic implements are rude in form, and are all of flint, manufactured by chipping only. But the neolithic implements are of finer forms, often highly polished, and made of many kinds of stone besides flint. The paleolithic implements are found in their origi nal situation in the river gravels, in caves, and in association with bones of extinct animals; but the neolithic implements are found in the surface soil, in the kitchen-middens of ancient habitations, and in chambered tombs. Though the palæolithic flint implements are so roughly chipped that it is impossible to conjecture their specific uses, still they present many well-marked typical forms; some are chiefly flakes for cutting and scraping; there are pointed implements, almond-shaped or tongue-shaped. The flint implements from the caves present a greater variety of form, and are much more carefully finished. From the caves come also a series of implements of bone and of carvings on bone which, by their artistic character, contrast strongly with the extremely rude implements with which they are associated. The bone implements are well-made needles, awls, javelin or harpoon tips, and certain implements of reindeer horn regarded by French archæologists as instruments and emblems of rule-batons de commandement - which usually are carved in relief or ornamented with incised figures of animals and occasionally of human figures. The animals, for instance, a group of reindeer from the cave of La Madelaine, Dordogne, are drawn with wonderful faithfulness, freedom and spirit. The neolithic implements are axes and axehammers, knives, daggers, spear-tips and arrowheads, saws, chisels, borers, and scrapers. The axes have usually no perforation for a haft;

they are simply wedges, the butt end of which was inserted in the shaft, or in a socket of stag's horn with a tenon on the upper and mortised into the shaft. Some of the long knives and daggers found in Denmark are marvels of skilful workmanship. The populations of the neolithic time deposited their dead in the chambers of dolmens. The pottery found in such sepulchres in Britain is generally of a hard-baked, dark-colored paste; and the vessels are mostly basin-shaped and round-bottomed; the ornamentation consists almost wholly of straight lines at various angles to each other. Neolithic man in Europe did not subsist on the products of the chase only; he practised agriculture and had the common domestic animals; these facts appear from the grains and seeds and the animal remains discovered in the haunts of these people. And the presence in the kitchen-middens of their sea-coast haunts of the remains of deep-sea fishes is proof that they possessed boats and fishing-lines.

Danish

flint dagger.

Stone, Artificial, a concreted material applied to numerous purposes, as making building blocks, flagstones, tiles, statuary, vases, grindstones, sewer-pipes, etc. There are many varieties, most of which have a base of hydraulic mortar, with which sand and pulverized stone of different kinds are mixed. See CEMENT; CONCRETE; MASONRY.

Stone Circles, circles of standing stones and of small boulders, found throughout Great Britain and in some places on the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. See STANDING

STONES.

Stone Coal, a name used to some extent in the United States and in England for anthracite coal to distinguish it from soft coal or bituminous coal. On the continent of Europe it is more frequently used to distinguish the older (Carbonic) coals from the later Mesozoic and Cenozoic coals and lignites.

Stone-crop, a plant, also called live-forever. See SEDUM.

Stone of Destiny.

See LIA-FAIL. Stone-fly, an aquatic neuropterous insect, much used as a bait in trout-fishing by anglers. These flies belong to the platypterous suborder Perlaria, recognized by the hinder wings being of large size, and folded, while the tarsi are three-jointed, and the antennæ or feelers are

filamentary in nature. The abdomen is provided with a pair of long-jointed caudal appendages. The mandibles are rudimentary. These flies and their larvæ occur plentifully in the neighborhood of lakes and ponds. They are carnivorous, and the larvæ are aquatic.

Stone-pine, a pine (Pinus pinea), common in the south of Italy, and often introduced into pictures of Italian landscapes. See PINE.

Stone River, or Murfreesboro. After the battle of Perryville (q.v.) 7-8 Oct. 1862, and Gen. Bragg's retreat from Kentucky into East Tennessee, Bragg was authorized by the Confederate government to make a movement into Middle Tennessee, and late in November had gathered his army at and near Mur

freesboro, on Stone River, 33 miles southeast of Nashville. Wheeler's cavalry covered his front, its pickets within 10 miles of Nashville. Gen. W. S. Rosecrans, who had succeeded Gen. Buell in command of the Army of the Ohio, 27 October, made some changes in the organization of the army, henceforth to be known as the Army of the Cumberland; which was composed of the Fourteenth Army corps. The corps was divided into three wings; the right wing, of three divisions, under Gen. A. McD. McCook, the centre of five divisions, under Gen. Geo. H. Thomas, and the left wing, three divisions, under Gen. T. L. Crittenden. On 26 December Rosecrans, with 56,000 men, advanced from Nashville in three columns, the right, under McCook, by the Nolensville pike, the centre, under Thomas, first on McCook's right by the Franklin pike and subsequently on his left; and the left, under Crittenden, by the Murfreesboro turnpike. Opposition was encountered from Wheeler's cavalry and Bragg's outposts at Nolensville, La Vergne, and Stewart's Creek bridge; and there was some delay caused by rain and bad roads; but at night of the 29th Crittenden was close up to Murfreesboro, and under Rosecrans' orders to occupy the place he threw a brigade across Stone River, two brigades were crossing the stream, and two divisions were under orders to follow, when the movement was suspended by Rosecrans, and the brigade recalled, after a sharp skirmish with a brigade of Bragg's troops. Thomas came up on Crittenden's right, but McCook was delayed until the next day, and after some severe fighting, in which he lost 135 killed and wounded, he took position on the right of Rosecrans army, with his left, Sheridan's division, on the Wilkinson pike and with Davis' division on the right of Sheridan. At first R. W. Johnson's division was in reserve, but when McCook ascertained that the Confederate left overlapped him, Johnson was brought up on the right of Davis. Thomas rested his right, Negley's division, on the Wilkinson pike, connecting with Sheridan. Crittenden's left rested on Stone River, with his right across the Nashville and Murfreesboro pike connecting with Thomas.

crans was

Gen. Wheeler had promptly informed Gen. Bragg on the morning of the 26th that Roseon the march, upon which Gen. Hardee's corps was ordered in from Triune, and Wheeler was directed to protect its flank, impede the Union advance and, when hard pressed, fall back upon the main body of the Confederate army, which was to give battle sisting of the divisions of Breckinridge and in front of Murfreesboro. Hardee's corps, conCleburne, with John K. Jackson's brigade as a reserve, made up Bragg's right wing; its right rested on the Lebanon pike, north of Murfreesboro, its left on the Nashville road. Wheeler's divisions of Withers and Cheatham-was on cavalry was on the right. Polk's corps - the Hardee's left, connecting with it on Stone River; McCown's division of E. Kirby Smith's corps, which at first was held in reserve east of the river, was ordered on the night of the 29th to cross over and extend Polk's left; so, on the night of the 30th, Hardee's corps was east of Stone River and Polk's corps and McCown's division west of it. The two armies bivouacked opposite each other; west of the river they were