-$30,000,000. Here are large foundries and factories for all fire-arms, guns, and all munitions of war. Also a garrison of several thousand men. The principal buildings are churches, schools including military schools for the different arms - artillery-construction bureau, factories for gunpowder, military and city hospital, etc., the fisheries and timber trade are important, also ship-building, horse and pigeon propagation for military purposes, etc. The town was often the residence of the first electors of the House of Hohenzollern, and subsequently passed into Swedish hands-till 1634. In 1806, the French took possession, and in 1813 was surrendered to the combined Prussian and Russian forces.

Span'drel, or Spandril, in architecture, an irregular space on a wall bounded by the outer curve of an arch, and two lines meeting at right angles, the one drawn perpendicularly from the springing of the arch, and the other horizontally from the apex, or by the outer curves of two contiguous arches and a horizontal line above them, or by similar curves of contiguous arches and the line of a larger arch enclosing the other

two.

Spangenberg, späng'en-berg, Augustus Gottlieb, German religionist: b. Klettenberg, Prussia, 15 July 1704; d. Berthelsdorf, Saxony, 18 Sept. 1792. He studied at Jena, abandoned law for theology, became a lecturer at the university and occasionally preached, in 1732 was made adjunct of the theological faculty at Halle, and in 1733 was dismissed because of his doctrinal views. At once he entered the Moravian Church at Herrnhut, and labored in Germany, America, the West Indies, and England, where he established the Society for the Furtherance of the Gospel among the Heathen. After his consecration as bishop in 1744 he was at the head of the Moravian Church in America until his return to Europe in 1762. On his arrival in Germany he participated in framing the new constitution of the Church, of whose governing board he was the chief member. Among his works are: 'Idea Fidei Fratrum (1782) (Eng. trans. by La Trole, 'Exposition of Christian Doctrine 1784); and Leben des Grafen von Zinzendorf (1775) (abridged Eng. trans. by Jackson 1838). He also wrote some well known hymns, such as 'Heil'ge Einfalt, Gnadenwunder (Hymnal No. 432) and 'Die Kirche Christi, die Er geweiht (Hymnal 612). The chief biographies of him are by Risler (1794) and Ledderhose (1846; Eng. trans. 1855).

Spangler, Henry Thomas, American college president: b. Myerstown, Pa., 14 Nov. 1853. He was graduated from Ursinus College, Pa., in 1873, and afterward studied at Heidelberg. He was licensed a minister in the German Reformed Church in 1875, held a pastorate 1877-90, and after being professor of psychology in Ursinus College (1891-3), became its president in 1893.

Spaniel, a small shaggy race of dogs, deriving its name from Spain, whence it originally came to Great Britain; and now generally divided into the two groups-sporting and toy spaniels. The common "field" spaniel is the type of the group, and two breeds of this variety, "springer" and "cocker," are distinguished. The former is a heavy dog used for beating

game in thick coverts. The spaniel has the hair very long in some parts; it is generally white, with large brown, liver-colored, or black spots, of irregular shape and size; the nose is sometimes cleft; the ears are very long and pendulous, and covered with long hair. The tail is feathery and waves from side to side when the dog runs. Two famous breeds of springer spaniels are the black Sussex and the larger Clumber breed is also well known. The cocker, whose name recalls its former use in English woodcock shooting, is much smaller than the field spaniel. The best-known breeds of the latter form are the English, Welsh, and Devonshire varieties. The smaller, King (or Prince) Charles spaniel, is a small variety of the spaniel, used as a lap-dog. It is sometimes found entirely black, and receives its name from the liking of Charles II. for this variety. The Blenheim breed is of smaller size than the King Charles variety, and is bred merely as a pet. Its hair is long and silky, and does not curl; the ears are long, and provided with the same silky hair; the legs are covered with this hair to the toes; and the tail possesses a broad hairy fringe. The water-spaniels are dogs of moderate size, and average about 22 inches in height at the shoulders, and the ears are very long and pendulous. The Japanese pug-nosed spaniel, Maltese, and other toy-breeds may be added to this list. See Dog.

Spanish-American Literature. See LATINAMERICAN LITERAture.

Spanish-American War. See UNITED STATES, SPANISH-AMERICAN War.

Spanish-American War, The Naval and Military Order of, an association organized in New York 2 Feb. 1899. Its objects are to cherish the memories and associations of the war. There are state branch associations in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts and Illinois. The total membership in 1903 was 1,100.

Spanish Broom, a leguminous papilionaceous shrub (Spartium junceum), a "switch plant," characterized by bunches of rod-like The branches, terete, polished and green. of assimilation; or they may have small lancetbranches are without foliage, serving as organs shaped leaves, scantily developed and quickly falling. The Spanish broom is native to the Mediterranean shores, where it grows in masses, as may be seen on Gibraltar, on dry and ical America, and cultivated for the terminal rocky ground. It has been naturalized in tropracemes of large pea-like flowers. These are an inch long, golden yellow, and very fragrant, with the odor of acacia, and are a favorite food of bees. They also yield a yellow dye. The tough twigs are used as food for goats, and produce a coarse fibre; the seeds, from linear pubescent pods, are diuretic and tonic, and in larger doses, emetic and cathartic. Spanish Era. See EPOCH. Spanish-fly.

See BLISTER-BEETLE.

Spanish Fort, a part of the defenses of the city of Mobile, Ala., during the Civil War; taken by the Federals 8 April 1865. It consisted of a system of fortifications, rather than a single fort. On 27 March it was invested by Union troops, A. J. Smith's corps, on the right, and Granger's on the left; a bombardment was be

gun 4 April, in which the gunboats on the river joined, and a naval battery on shore rendered service. The Federals intended to assault the defenses on 9 April; but on the 8th Gen. Carr found that it was possible to place a battery on a wooded crest commanding the fort and that evening his troops gained the crest, captured 300 yards of the works and, getting their battery into position, compelled the Confederates to evacuate. Consult: Battles and Leaders of the Civil War,' Vol. IV.

Spanish Fowls. See POULTRY.

Spanish Language, Literature, and Art. See SPAIN, LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, and Art of. Spanish Mackerel, a mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus), with the body more compressed than that of the common mackerel and the head short and conical. It reaches a length of about 30 inches, and is a handsome fish marked on the sides with round golden bronze spots which distinguish it at once from any other fish occurring in our waters. This mack erel is properly a tropical species, but during the summer migrates northward along the Atlantic coast, occasionally reaching even Cape Cod. It is one of the most graceful and active of fishes, and swims at the surface in schools in pursuit of menhaden, silversides and other smaller fishes, which constitute its chief diet. The species is very prolific, each female producing from 300,000 to 1,000,000 of the small buoy ant eggs which develop rapidly and may hatch within a single day. In Chesapeake Bay, which is an important spawning ground, the breeding season is June. Besides being a favorite gamefish in the south, the Spanish mackerel is commercially of considerable importance, being excellent on the table, but scarcely known before the introduction of the pound-net into our fisheries. Many are taken in these nets about Sandy Hook, but the most important fisheries are in Chesapeake Bay where gill-nets are also employed largely in their capture. In 1901 about 520,000 pounds, valued at $45,000, were caught in the latter region, and 38,928 pounds, valued at $5,729, in New Jersey. The sierra (S. regalis) and the silver cero or kingfish (S. cavalla) are related species found in the West Indies and along the coast of the South Atlantic States.

Spanish Main, a name formerly given to the coasts of the Spanish colonies bordering on the Caribbean Sea, and often transferred to the

sea itself. In the latter sense it occurs frequently in connection with the buccaneers. See

BUCCANEERS.

Spanish Moss, an epiphytic, pendulous plant (Tillandsia usneoides) of the pineapple family, which is widely distributed throughout tropical America. The softly-haired seeds are carried by the wind, to the rough bark of treebranches, where they lodge, and germinate. The stems are very slender, gray and scurfy, sometimes several feet long, bear scattered leaves which are narrowly linear, and have in their axils solitary, regular and perfect 3-merous flowers, which are yellow-petaled but inconspicuous. The plants are silvery gray in tone, which accounts for their common name of old man's beard; and they drape the forests extensively

and mournfully, in contrast with the evergreen of pines and live oaks, as far north as the Carolina coast and in southern California. It is used after drying as packing for articles in boxes, stuffing for cheap mattresses, etc. See FIBRE.

Spanish Peaks, two isolated mountains which form prominent landmarks in southern Colorado, near the Mexican border. The summit of the higher peak is 13,623 feet above sealevel. It is partly composed of volcanic rocks. The other mountain is 12,720 feet high.

Spanish Succession, War of the. See SUCCESSION Wars.

Spanish Town, or Santiago de la Vega, town of Jamaica, 10 miles west of Kingston. It is connected with Kingston by railroad, and is the second town in importance on the island. It was formerly the capital, but the seat of government was moved to Kingston in 1872. It is ill built and unhealthy. Pop. 6,000.

Spanish War Veterans, a society organized by men who took part in the SpanishAmerican War. The object of the society, which was incorporated 28 Nov. 1899, is to keep alive the memories of the war with Spain in a patriotic American sense, and not with the view of nursing any feeling of international enmity, to promote the best interests of those who took part in the war in the service of the United States, and to encourage universal liberty and equal rights and justice. Although the number of killed and wounded in the Spanish War was not large, as compared with other wars in which the United States has been engaged, the conditions of climate and season during the Cuban campaign were such as to do permanent injury to thousands of veterans who were not wounded in battle, and many suffered serious detriment to health who never passed beyond the Southern camps. The veterans of this conflict, therefore, have strong reasons for being mutually helpful, and for keeping true to that spirit of comradeship which has had such a marked influence in upholding and advancing the interests of civil war veterans. The society has grown rapidly in numbers and now includes the larger part of the volunteer veterans throughout the United States. The officers are Harold C. Megrew, Indianapolis, Commanderin-chief; Champe S. Andrews, New York, Senior Vice-Commander-in-chief; Lucien F. ViceBurpee, Waterbury, Conn.; Junior Commander-in-chief; L. A. Dyer, Washington, D. C., Adjutant-general; Robert A. Brunner, N. Frederick C. Kuehnie, New York, InspectorRutherford, J., Quartermaster-general; general; I. N. Kinney, Bay City, Mich., Judgeadvocate-general; Frank Hendley, Cincinnati, Ohio, surgeon-general; Rev. W. H. I. Reaney, U. S. N., Chaplain-in-chief. The Council of Administration consists of Henry F. Warren, Bay City, Mich.; W. T. Durbin, Indianapolis, Ind.; C. C. Mattes, Scranton, Pa.; Fred W. Averill, New Haven, Conn.; Henry A. F. Young, Brooklyn, N. Y.; James W. Carver, Auburn, Me.; J. L. King, Washington, D. C.; George W. Skipwith, Richmond, Va.; Michael J. Murphy, Boston, Mass.; Charles Leimbach, Brooklyn, N. Y.; John T. Hilton, Paterson, N. J.; C. J. Heinz, Dayton, O.

Spanish War Veterans, National Auxiliary of, an association composed of the mothers.

wives, sisters and daughters of members of the Society of Spanish War Veterans, also of other women, such as nurses, who rendered special service during the war in camp or hospital, or otherwise.

Spar, a general name in mineralogy for a cleavable mineral which is not an ore. Thus we have feldspar, comprising both orthoclase and plagioclase; calcspar or cleavable calcite, with its transparent variety iceland spar; fluor spar, or fluorite; satin spar, or fibrous gypsum; tabular spar, or Wollastonite, and heavy spar, or barite. The term is of German origin.

Spar'idæ, a large family of carnivorous shore-fishes, the porgies, of tropical seas, especially abundant in the Mediterranean, Red Sea and West Indian waters. None are of great size; the body is oblong, likely to be elevated, covered with large adherent scales and ornamental colors; the mouth is filled with strong teeth, in which the incisors are prominent. Most of them are excellent food, and many are gamy. Jordan says that about II genera and 100 species are counted in the family, about half of which occur in North American waters. These include the scup, porgies, sheeps head and related fishes. Consult: Goode, American Fishes (New York 1888); Jordan and Evermann, Fishes of North and Middle America' (Washington 1898).

Sparks, Edwin Erle, American historical writer: b. Licking County, Ohio, 1860. He was graduated from Ohio State University in 1884 and from the University of Chicago in 1900. He was instructor at Ohio State University 1884-5; professor at Pennsylvania State College 1890-5; lecturer before the American Society of University Extension 1893-5; and has been professor of American history at the University of Chicago since 1895. He has published: Expansion of the American People' (1899); The Men Who Made the Nation' (1900); Formative Incidents in American Diplomacy' (1902); The United States in the Story of the Nations series (1903).

Sparks, Jared, American scholar and historian: b. Willington, Tolland County, Conn., 10 May 1789; d. Cambridge, Mass., 14 March 1866. He was graduated from Harvard in 1815, studied theology with Dr. Nathaniel Thayer from May 1817 to March 1818, was editor of the North American Review,' then begun in Boston, and in 1818 entered the Unitarian ministry. On May 1819 he was ordained pastor of the Unitarian congregation at Baltimore, Md., Dr. W. E. Channing (q.v.) preaching on that occasion the wellknown discourse on Unitarian Christianity.' Sparks did much in Baltimore to promote the growth of the Unitarian faith, instituting there a Unitarian book society, and editing the Unitarian Miscellany, a monthly periodical. He resigned in 1823, and from 1823 to 1830 was again editor of the North American,' in which he acquired a three-quarter interest. After some periodical contributions to the economic history of the South, and to Mexican and South American history, he published in 1828 a Life of Ledyard,' the American traveler. In the preparation of this work he first undertook that method of travel and research among original sources in which he was the pioneer in the United States, and which he afterward so worthily ap

plied to the study of American history. After long investigation, including a very wide correspondence, and a voyage to Europe for the examination of records in the public offices of London and Paris, he published the well-known Writings of George Washington, with a Life of the Author, Notes and Illustrations' (1834-7), which remained the standard until to an extent superseded by W. C. Ford's edition (1889-93). Sparks used the copies of Washington's letters as found in the latter's letterbook. The discrepancies found to exist between the copies and the originals as preserved refuted the charges at first made to the effect that Sparks had wilfully altered the letters. Sparks' method of editing in general has, however, been discarded. He printed only what he believed of importance, omitting and altering passages as he saw fit. This was largely due to the idea of editorial discretion then observed, and should not be made occasion for disparagement. Whatever be said of his methods in editing text, Sparks was a really distinguished historical scholar, and maintained almost invariably as high a level of excellence as was then possible to the historical editor. He also prepared The Works of Benjamin Franklin' (1836-40); The Library of American Biography) (1st series 1834-8; 2d 1844-8), himself writing 7 of the 60 lives; and Correspondence of the American Revolution (1854). He also wrote 'Remarks on American History) (1837). He was professor of history at Harvard in 1839-49, and president in 1849-53. The standard biography is H. B. Adams' Life and Writings of Jared Sparks' (1893); there is also one by Ellis (1869).

Sparrow, the familiar name of many small birds of the finch family (Fringillida), applied loosely to the representatives of a large and varied assemblage of genera. Generally speaking, sparrows are moderately sized members of the family which live mostly on or near the ground, whose bills are neither especially short and stout nor angulated in the gape, and which have the sexes similarly colored. About 10 genera and 40 species called sparrows belong to the North American faunas of which the following may be mentioned. The white-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys) is about 7 inches long, the body stout, and the tail rather long and moderately rounded; the chin, throat, and breast are nearly uniform ashy; the head above black; median and superciliary stripe pure white; a narrow black line through and behind the eyes; back and wing-coverts dark reddish brown with paler margins; quills and tail darker; wings with two white bands; whitish below; bill reddish orange tipped with brown. It is found from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains and from Labrador to Texas, breeding to the north and in the Rocky Mountains. The notes are mellow and sweet, six or seven in number, the first loud and clear, and thence becoming fainter and more plaintive; eggs light green with brownish mottlings at the larger end; the nest is on the ground or among moss, and the eggs are laid in Labrador from the 1st to the end of June. The flight is low, swift; the food consists of seeds, berries, and insects; the migrations are performed mostly by day. It spends its summers in northern Canada and Alaska. The white-throated sparrow or peabody

bird (Z. albicollis) has the chin abruptly white; superciliary stripe broad, yellow anteriorly and white behind; median head-stripe white, with a black one on each side, and a broad black streak behind the eye; edge of wing and axillaries yellow; two narrow white bands across wing coverts. It is found in the eastern United States and westward to the Missouri, appearing in the Southern States in November and departing in March to the North. It breeds from the northern tier of States northward, and its nest, eggs and song resemble those of the last. This species is very active among hedges and thickets, and is found in flocks with the white-crowned sparrow, than which it is generally more plentiful. These, with two or three additional western species of Zonotrichia, are among the largest and most handsome of our sparrows.

The genus Spizella, which differs from the last in its smaller size and longer forked tail, contains three well known northern species and as many more confined to the western and southern United States. The field sparrow (S. pusilla) is about 51⁄2 inches long; the bill is reddish; ear coverts, crown, and back rufous, the last with blackish streaks; sides of head and neck, and stripe over eyes, ashy; white below, tinged with yellow anteriorly; quills and tail faintly edged with white, and two bands of the same across wing coverts; rump yellowish brown. It is found in eastern North America as far as the Missouri, remaining in the Southern States during winter, going north in March, and arriving in New England toward the last of April. The song is pleasing, resembling the trill of a young canary. It is sociable and peaceful, and very prolific, sometimes raising three broods a year. The nest is of grasses and placed on or near the ground; the eggs usually 4 or 5, whitish thickly speckled with reddish brown. It frequents fields and fence rows, and locks when not breeding. The chipping-sparrow (q.v.) and tree-sparrow belong here. The genus Passerella is remarkable for the elongation of the lateral toes and the large size of the claws, adapting these birds for scratching on the ground. The fox-colored sparrow (P. iliaca), with its several varieties, is our only representative. It is 7 inches long, the back is rust brown, margined with ashy, lighter on the head, tail, and wing coverts, rufous on the last two; white below, streaked with light brownish red on breast and sides of neck, rufous patch on cheeks. It is found as far west as the Mississippi, preferring the Northern States and going south in winter. It is seen in small flocks in the underwood and along brier-skirted fences and streams. It breeds in British America. The flight is slow, rapid and undulating; the song clear, full, sweet, and prolonged with many repetitions. The nest is made on the ground or in bushes.

Other important genera are Ammodramus, with II species, including the savanna sparrow (A. sandwichensis), the yellow-winged grasshopper sparrow (A. passerinus), the sharp-tailed Sparrow (A. caudacutus), and the sea-side sparrow (A. maritimus), the last two inhabitants of salt marshes, Melospiza, including the song sparrows (q.v.); Poöcates, with the vesper sparrow or bay-winged bunting (P. gramineus); and others less well-known. The sparrows of Europe are few in number and belong to the genus Passer.

Besides the house sparrow (q.v.), the European tree-sparrow (P. montanus) has been introduced into this country. There is also an American bird of the same name, also called Canada sparrow (Spizella monticola), which much. resembles the chipping-sparrow, but has a distinct dark spot on the breast and conspicuous white wing-bars. It is a northern bird, but in the winter is abundant in the United States, flocking in fields and shrubbery.

Consult: Ridgway, 'Birds of North and Middle America,' Part I. (Washington 1902); and general works on ornithology. For the "English" sparrow, see HOUSE-SPARROW.

Sparrow-hawk, a small falcon (Falco sparverius), common throughout North America and practically cosmopolitan, since scarcely distinguishable species inhabit all quarters of the globe. It is II to 12 inches long, and the adult male has the back tawny; wings bluish and black; seven black blotches about the head; tail chestnut, with a broad black band and a narrow terminal one of white; below white or tawny. The female is more streaky, has the tail tawny with numerous narrow darker bars; back and wing-coverts rusty, barred with black. These birds are true falcons (see FALCONRY), and admirably bold and active. Not unfrequently the sparrow-hawk may be seen to attack other and larger birds of prey, its courage extending even to a reckless degree, while it is also shy and wary. It feeds largely on mice, which it catches with great skill, and also sometimes seizes young chickens, but its depredations in that direction are of little consequence. It makes its nest in hollows of trees, the deserted hole of a large woodpecker, or sometimes an abandoned crow'snest.

Sparrow-owl, one of the diminutive, brown-streaked owls of the genus Nyctale, of which the saw-whet (q.v.) is a familiar example. The name belongs primarily to Tengmalm's owl of Northern Europe, of which Richardson's owl (N. richardsoni) of Canada and Alaska is an American variety. It is bold and strong, and feeds mainly on small birds.

Greece, the capital of Laconia and of the SparSparta, spär'ta, a celebrated city of ancient

tan state, lay on the west bank of the river Eurotas, and embraced a circuit of six miles. Sparta was irregularly built, and from this circumstance it is supposed to have got its name, signifying "scattered." It consisted of five separate quarters, which were not completely surrounded by walls till the time of the Romans. It was the boast of Sparta that her men were her walls. Among other remarkable objects enumerated by Pausanias are the following: the market-place, containing the public buildings, in which the council of the elders held their meetings, and the principal ornament of which was the Persice, a celebrated colonnade, built from the spoils taken from the Persians; its roof was supported by statues of Persians; the theatre the remains of which constitute the principal ruins of Sparta; the chorus, or place in which the ephebi executed their dances, adorned with statues of Apollo, Artemis, and Leto; the Leschai, or halls in which the popular assemblies were held, and of which there were two- the Lesche of the Crotanes, near the tombs of the Agides, and the