The embarrassment in many of the counties and towns arising from a failure to pay the bonded indebtedness still continues. In Clark County a vote of the citizens was taken on the question of a dissolution of the county organization on a compromise of the debt. The result was 464 votes for compromise, and 622 for a dissolution of the county organization.

The official returns of the election of 1878 were received too late for insertion in the "Annual Cyclopædia " of that year. The vote for Governor, W. R. Miller, to whom there was no opposition, was 88,730. The following State officers were chosen: Secretary of State, John Frolich; Auditor, John Crawford; Attorney-General, William F. Henderson; Land Commissioner, D. W. Lear; Supreme Court Judge, John R. Eakin; Superintendent of Public Instruction, J. L. Denton; Chancellor, D. W. Carroll. The vote for members of Congress was as follows:

as follows: The Uintalis, in northeastern Utah, estimated at 430 souls; the "Los Pinos," in the Uncompahgre Valley, Colorado, estimated at 2,000 souls; the "Southern Utes," in southwestern Colorado, with 934 souls; and the "White River Utes," in northwestern Colorado, estimated at 800 souls. These Indians are of the fiercest class, and occupy the roughest parts of our country for farming, grazing, or for military operations. Their management is complicated by the fact that their country is known to possess mineral deposits, which attract a bold and adventurous class of white men. They are very warlike, and have no difficulty in procuring, in exchange for their deer-skins, horses, and sheep, any amount of the best rifles and ammunition. In former years they used to come east of the Rocky Mountains to hunt buffalo, but of late years they have confined their hunting to the bear, elk, and deer of the mountain region. long as the game lasts they will not work or attempt farming, except in the smallest and most insignificant manner, and that only by compulsion.

As

A state of irritation, which resulted in a conflict, was produced by the demand of the agent, Mr. Meeker, that the Indians should

ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. The strength of the Army of the United States at present is 2,127 officers, 24,262 men, and 388 retired officers. The enlisted men of the Signal Corps, Engineer and Ordnance Corps, Ordnance Sergeants, Commissary Sergeants, and Hospital Stewards, the prison guard at Fort Leavenworth, and the recruiting detachments, amount in the aggregate to 3,463 men, and are employed in the performance of important duties connected with the military establishments, but these duties bring but few of them into active service in the field. The statute now authorizes a total force of 25,000 men, not including the Signal Corps, which has by law 456 men. The combative force of the army proper consists of 11 generals, 1,559 officers, 20,556 men, and 233 Indian scouts.

The only disturbance of the peace during the year took place on the frontier with the Utes in Colorado and the Apaches in New Mexico. .The Indian name "Utee," from which Utah takes its name, was applied to all the nomads west of the Rocky Mountains, as far as Nevada, and south into New Mexico and Arizona. Gradually they have been surrounded by white settlements and broken up into many distinct bands, the four principal of which are located

promisingly hostile, and, in his endeavor to plow land for farming, Major Thornburgh with a small force announced to the agent his intention of coming to afford him any assistance he might need. The agent in reply stated that the Indians were very much excited, and regarded the approach of troops as a declaration of war; and he suggested to Major Thornburgh to stop at some convenient camping-place, and with five soldiers come into the agency, where a talk and a better understanding could be had. Major Thornburgh accepted the suggestion, and stated that he should move with his entire command within striking distance, and suggested that the agent and some of the chiefs meet him on the road. The former expressed gratification with the plan, and, in a letter dated September 29th, one P. M., said he expected to leave the agency on the next morning, adding: "If you have trouble getting through the cañon to-day, let me know. We have been on guard three nights, and shall be to-night, not because we know there is danger, but because there may be." The Indians lay in wait and made an attack. The result was a loss on the side of the military command of 11 citizens, 2 officers, and 12 soldiers killed and 41 wounded. The Indians admitted a loss of 39. Major Thornburgh was killed in this action, and the agent, Mr. Meeker, at his residence. About the same time some of the Apaches, who belong to the Mescalero Agency, near Fort Stanton, New Mexico, more than 600 miles south of White River, began a raid upon the ranches and settlements in southern New Mexico. Major Morrow, of the Ninth Cavalry, with about 450 men at his command, started

in pursuit, but no very serious affair was anticipated. These Apaches have no connection whatever with the Utes. They have always been restless and mischievous, and only resort to agencies to rest, recuperate, and make ready for the next war. As soon as winter comes they are expected to return to their agency and become orderly.

A proposition, often made and recently renewed, to transfer the charge of the Indians from the Department of the Interior to the War Department, has led to such conflicting discussions on the subject of Indian management as to obtain the name of the "Indian problem" for it. The difficulties connected with it have been steadily growing from year to year as the Western country, formerly occupied as hunting-grounds exclusively, is required for agricultural settlement and mining industry. In the same measure as white men and Indians more and more jostled each other, their contact has been apt to result in collision. The Indians are scattered over an immense extent of country, in tribes and bands of different size, with constantly growing and multiplying settlements of whites between them. The game upon which formerly most of them could depend for subsistence is rapidly disappearing. They occupy a number of reservations, some large and some comparatively small; some consisting in great part of fertile lands, some barren; many of which were secured to them for occupancy by treaties in times gone by with them as distinct nations. Many treaty reservations have turned out to be of far greater value in agricultural and mineral resources than they were originally thought to be, and are now equally coveted by the white population surrounding them.

The system of superintendents and agents has continued from an early period; but these officers were few in number and made their reports to the War Office, although neither the Secretary nor any officer of the Department had anything to do with their appointment, nor was the Department charged with the duty of supervising or controlling them. In 1854 an act of Congress was passed by which there was given to the Secretary of War a sort of general superintendency of the agents and sub-agents appointed by the President; and, while by that act the President was authorized to select military men to discharge the duties of Indian agents, a large majority of the agents selected were taken from civil life, and much machinery was employed in the conduct of Indian affairs. Year after year large amounts of money have been expended with a view to civilizing these people, and yet failure has attended the efforts in this direction. The inauguration of the "peace policy" in 1868 by President Grant, in which their management was placed entirely in the hands of civilians, was expected to produce more favorable results. The ends steadily pursued by the Interior Department have been-1. To set the Indians to

work as agriculturists or herders, thus to break up their habits of savage life and to make them self-supporting; 2. To educate their youth of both sexes so as to introduce to the growing generation civilized ideas, wants, and aspirations; 3. To allot parcels of land to Indians in severalty, and to give them individual title to their farms in fee, inalienable for a certain period, thus to foster the pride of individual ownership of property, instead of their former dependence upon the tribe, with its territory held in common; 4. When settlement in severalty with individual title is accomplished, to dispose with their consent of those lands on their reservations which are not settled and used by them, the proceeds to form a fund for their benefit, which will gradually relieve the Government of the expenses at present provided for by annual appropriations; 5. When this is accomplished, to treat the Indians like other inhabitants of the United States under the laws of the land. “This policy," says the Secretary of the Interior, "if adopted and supported by Congress and carried out with wisdom and firmness, will, in my opinion, gradually bring about a solution of the Indian problem, without injustice to the Indians and also without obstructing the development of the country."

It appears, from the report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, that the Indians on reservations have now under cultivation 157,056 acres, about 24,000 of which were broken by them in 1879, and that the products raised by the reservation Indians during the same twelve months amounted to 328,637 bushels of wheat, 643,286 bushels of corn, 189,654 bushels of oats and barley, 390,698 bushels of potatoes and other vegetables, and 48,353 tons of hay. This exhibit of the products of Indian labor does not include the five civilized tribes of the Indian Territory, who cultivated 237,000 acres and raised 565,400 bushels of wheat, 2,015,000 bushels of corn, 200,500 bushels of oats and barley, 336,700 bushels of vegetables, and 176,500 tons of hay. At the same time the raising of stock has been encouraged as much as possible. There are owned by reservation Indians 199,700 horses, 2,870 mules, 68,894 head of cattle, 32,537 swine, and 863,525 sheep, the latter principally by the Navajos. The five civilized tribes in the Indian Territory are reported to have 45,500 horses, 5,500 mules, 272,000 head of cattle, 190,000 swine, and 32,400 sheep. Provision has been made for an additional distribution of 11,300 head of stock cattle among the uncivilized tribes, it being found that the Indians are beginning to take excellent care of their domestic animals, and to be proud of the increase of their stock. Many have commenced raising swine and poultry, and it is thought expedient to encourage such beginnings in every possible way. The cultivation of garden vegetables among them is also rapidly spreading. Preparations have been made to increase the area of

cultivated soil very largely in 1880. Considerable quantities of agricultural tools and implements have been distributed, and the demand is constantly growing. So far as regards the solution of the Indian question, the Secretary of the Interior is of the opinion that it "depends upon the civilization of the Indians and their ability to take care of themselves."

The expenditures of the War Department for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1879, were $42,653,723. The appropriations available for the service of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1878, were $45,076,702; those for 1879 were $53,016,040; and those for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880, were $46,269,821. The estimates for the service of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1881, amount to $40,380,428. The estimates for the civil establishment, which is the War Department proper, amount to $1,159,460. The force of the War Department and its bureaus was reorganized by an act of June 20, 1874, and placed on a basis, as to numbers, grades, and compensation, which seemed to be satisfactory in the transaction of public business, until that basis was materially changed by legislative reduction in 1876, and was thereafter considered by Congress as subject to further decrease. The military establishment is estimated for on the basis of 25,450 enlisted men, the Signal Corps being by law allowed 450 men not to be included in the 25,000. Under this head the estimates for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880, were $29,335,727.33; the appropriations to meet the same were $26,978,847.33; and the present estimates are for $29,319,794.78. The principal differences between the estimates and the appropriations are on account of the item for pay, etc., of the army, which is made up of estimates based on arithmetical calculations, and on items for the Ordnance Department which relate to timely provisions for the public defense in any emergency that may arise. The estimates for the public works are $7,557,034.42, which amount is $396,043.34 less than the estimates for 1879, $113,946.88 less than those for 1880, and $3,237,460.19 less than the appropriations for 1880, which were $10,794,464.61. The amounts appropriated for "fortifications and other works of defense" during the last five years have been insufficient to preserve all such Government property from waste. This fact accounts for the annual increase in the amounts suggested for these works by the Chief of Engineers. Under this title the estimates for 1880, which were $3,188,400, were reduced to $1,000,000, and the present estimates, rendered in detail, for $4,028,500, have been reduced in the aggregate to $1,000,000, which amount could be wisely and properly applied to the preservation and care of these works. The estimates for rivers and harbors, rendered by items for $14,326,650, were reduced in the aggregate to $5,015,000, which was the total of the amount appropriated for the fiscal year 1877, and which

seems to have been sufficient for the promotion of the general commerce of the country during that time. The miscellaneous estimates are $2,344,139.73, of which amount about one fourth appertains annually to the departmental collection and diffusion of valuable official data, such as the observation and report of storms through the Signal Service, the compilation and publication of official records of the war of the rebellion, and the like, and the remaining portion (which is over $1,500,000) is made up of items wholly relative to certain moral obligations of the Government, such as the support of the National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers, the furnishing of artificial limbs and other appliances to disabled soldiers, and the care of national cemeteries. The aggregate of the estimates for the next fiscal year is $2,273,294.69 less than the amount of actual expenditures of 1879, $5,889,393.01 less than the appropriations available for the service of the fiscal year 1880, and is $7,289.40 less than the estimates for 1880, which were for a less sum of money than any annual estimates rendered to Congress from the Department for a period of at least eleven years.

The preparation of the Union and Confederate War Records is progressing under the management of Colonel R. N. Scott, of the army. The Secretary of War says: "There is a general disposition on the part of the ex-Confederate officers to contribute material to the official History of the War." The Southern Historical Society has placed its collection at the service of the Department, and valuable documents have been furnished by Generals Johnston, Pemberton, Wheeler, Jones, Ruggles, and others.

The total number of deaths from all causes reported among the white troops was 266, or 12 per 1,000 of mean strength. Of these, 162, or 7 per 1,000 of strength, died of disease, and 104, or 5 per 1,000 of strength, of wounds, accidents, and injuries. The proportion of deaths from all causes to cases treated was 1 to 142. The total number of white soldiers reported to have been discharged the service on "surgeon's certificate of disability" was 677, or 81 per 1,000 of mean strength. The total number of deaths of colored soldiers reported from all causes was 28, or 14 per 1,000 of mean strength. Of these, 15, or 8 per 1,000 of strength, died of disease, and 13, or 6 per 1,000 of strength, of wounds, accidents, and injuries. The proportion of deaths from all causes to cases treated was 1 to 140. The total number of colored soldiers reported to have been discharged on "surgeon's certificate of disability" was 42, or 22 per 1,000 of mean strength.

The survey of the territory west of the 100th meridian has been continued in the States of Colorado, Texas, Nevada, California, and Oregon, and in the Territories of Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Washington, and in connection with this work a special survey of Great Salt Lake has been completed. No funds were

available for the prosecution of the field-work on this survey after June 30, 1879, and all parties were withdrawn from the field on or before that date. There are eight engineer officers now employed in the Western military divisions and departments in making surveys, and in collecting and mapping the geographical and topographical information obtained in scouts and campaigns against the hostile Indians. Maps prepared in this way are of great value to the War Department and to the

army.

The Ordnance Department still continues the test of breech-loading ordnance, especially of the 8-inch rifle converted from a 10-inch smooth-bore gun, and thus far 202 rounds (190 with full battering charges) have been successfully completed. The endurance so far has proved satisfactory, and no evidences of want of endurance in its special construction have been so far afforded; and there are good grounds for the opinion that it will stand its thorough proof, and establish the fact that after this system the original smooth-bore cast-iron guns can be converted into breech-loaders, or original breech-loading cannon of the heaviest construction can be produced. The decided advantages to be derived from the use of breechloading rifles, especially in casemated works, have been heretofore noticed in these pages. Since then the unfortunate disaster on board of the Thunderer (the bursting of a 38-ton muzzle-loading gun by the accidental insertion of two charges, impossible to occur in breechloaders), and the unexcelled results (in power, accuracy, and successful manipulation) recently attained at Meppen, by Herr Krupp, in the trials of his breech-loading guns of 70 and 80 tons, have led to the conviction that it is highly probable that the general introduction of breech-loading instead of muzzle-loading cannon in the armaments of Europe, for all heavy ordnance especially, is a mere matter of time. During the last fiscal year there were manufactured at the National Armory 20,005 Springfield rifles, and, under the law authorizing it, 1,000 of the experimental Hotchkiss magazine rifles. The former have been produced at a much less cost than heretofore, owing to the increased number manufactured and the improvement of the plant employed; and, as there is now available a larger appropriation than usual for the present year, it is confidently expected that the cost will be yet further reduced in the future. There were in store on July 1, 1879, only 22,073 rifles and 5,406 carbines at the armory and arsenals. The Hotchkiss arms are now in the hands of the Regular Army for trial in actual service, and upon the reports to be made bimonthly will depend any recommendations for the supply to be hereafter manufactured.

The military board, consisting of Generals J. M. Schofield, A. H. Terry, and George W. Getty, before whom the President ordered a rehearing of the case of General Fitz John PorVOL. XIX.-4 A

ter, made a report exonerating him entirely. They state the evidence as presenting itself under several distinct heads: 1. Imperfect and in some respects erroneous statements of facts, due to the partial and incorrect knowledge in the possession of the witnesses at the time of the court-martial, and the extremely inaccurate maps and erroneous locations of troops thereon, by which erroneous statements were made to convey still more erroneous impressions; 2. The opinions and inferences of prominent officers, based upon this imperfect knowledge; 3. Far more complete and accurate statements of facts now made by a large number of eye-witnesses from both the contending forces; 4. Accurate maps of the field of operations and the exact positions of the troops thereon at different periods of time, by which statements otherwise contradictory or irreconcilable are shown to be harmonious, and opposing opinions are shown to be based upon different views of the same military situation; and, 5. The conflicting testimony relative to the plan of operations, the interpretation of orders, the motives of action, and relative degrees of responsibility for the unfortunate results. Concerning the charge of which General Porter was found guilty, of not having moved his command on the night of August 27, 1862, in obedience to an order from General Pope, the Board report that it was a manifest physical impossibility to march over that road that night. They say nothing could have been gained by the attempt, and that it would have been wiser if General Porter had delayed his attempt still longer than he did. They think he exercised the very ordinary discretion of a corps commander, and that it was his plain duty to so express it. The report recites at much length and in detail the important events connected with the military operations of the 29th of August, 1862, and among other important facts it is made clear that Porter's display of troops in the early part of the afternoon of the 29th gave rise to the belief on the Confederate side of an attack about to be made, and that under this belief Longstreet sent his reserves from the extreme left to the extreme right of his army and in front of Porter, thus relieving the Union army under the other commanders from this Confederate force. Porter's duty during the afternoon of that date, the report states, was too plain and simple to admit of discussion, and the Board is unable to find anything in it subject to criticism, much less deserving censure and condemnation. He had made frequent reports to his superiors, stating what he had done and what he had been unable to do; what his situation was in respect to the enemy, and what their strength; what his impressions were from the sounds of action toward his right; how he had failed to get any communications from any commander in the main army, or any orders from General Pope or McDowell as to his designs for the night, sending an aidede-camp to General Pope for orders and receiv

ing no reply, not even information that the vital 4.30 order had been sent to him; and generally informing his superior officers that if left to himself without orders he would have to retire at night for food and water, which were not accessible where he was. These reports were sent not only frequently but early enough to insure the receipt of orders from General Pope or correct information from McDowell, if they had any to send him.

ASIA. The area of Asia was estimated in 1878 at 17,308,000 square miles, and the total population at about 831,000,000.* (Behm and Wagner, "Bevölkerung der Erde," vol. v., Gotha, 1878.)

In Afghanistan, the British armies having after a series of easy victories gained the important positions of Jelalabad and Candahar, and having secured the passes commanding the approaches to Cabool, the representatives of the Indian Government concluded with the Ameer Yakoob Khan, who succeeded the deceased Shere Ali, the treaty of Gundamuk. In this convention the jurisdiction of the English over the border territories was recognized, perpetual friendship was declared between England and Afghanistan, and the residence of a representative of the British Government at Cabool was stipulated for. The resident appointed in accordance with the treaty was received at Cabool with ceremonial honor; but a few weeks afterward a mutiny broke out among the Afghan soldiers, the residency was destroyed, and its principal members were murdered. Another military expedition was dispatched against Cabool, and occupied that capital October 10th, after which the British officers proceeded to restore order and punish the perpetrators of the outrages against the late residents. In consequence of this occupation, Yakoob Khan declared his abdication as Ameer of Afghanistan, and General Roberts issued a proclamation announcing that for the present the administration of the country would remain with the British authorities. (See AFGHANISTAN.)

Throughout the year the British Government was on the verge of another war with the young King of Burmah. This King, who succeeded his father in October, 1878, proved to be one of the worst tyrants the Asiatic countries have known during the present century, and seemed to be under the influence of a war party which inflamed him against the British. A claim laid by the King to the East Karennee country, which was disputed by England, greatly strained the relations between the two countries, and in October the British Resident at Mandalay left the country. In November the King of Burmah sent a special envoy to the Viceroy of India. (See BURMAH.)

While the progress of the British arms in

*For a detailed account of the area and population of the divisions and subdivisions of Asia see "Annual Cyclopædia' for 1878, article Asia.

Afghanistan was watched with great interest and considerable jealousy in Russia, a new Russian expedition against the Tekke Turcomans created some uneasiness in England. The expedition advanced in the direction of Merv, a place which many English statesmen would prevent Russia from occupying even at a risk of war. The Russian Government denied that the direct object of the expedition was the occupation of Merv; it was, however, generally understood that the expedition might ultimately lead to this result. For the present, the utter failure of the Russian army prevented a serious complication between England and Russia; but, as the attempt will be renewed next year, the danger of a collision is by no means averted. This further advance of the Russian armies, and the consolidation under Russian rule of the territories which have of late been annexed or may be hereafter annexed, will be greatly promoted by the building of a Central Asian railroad, which is contemplated for the near future, and by other works of material improvement which are pushed forward by the Russians. (See RusSIA.)

The rule of the Chinese Government in Kashgaria has been fully reestablished, and Russia has been prevailed upon to consent to a restoration of Kulja, which was occupied by the Russians eight years ago in consequence of the disorders prevailing among the Mohammedans there. The influence of the Chinese Government in many of the small neighboring countries, like Burmah and Nepaul, seems to be on the increase, but the Government was again harassed in 1879 by several rebellions. (See CHINA.)

The entire incorporation of the Loochoo Islands with the Japanese Empire has strained the relations between Japan and China, as the Government of the latter country has never abandoned its claim to the islands. In discussing the controversy, the native papers of Japan glory in the progress they have made in civilization. (See JAPAN.)

Toward the close of the year the relations between England and Turkey assumed an unfriendly character, because the Government of Turkey, in the opinion of the English Government, had failed to carry out in Asia Minor those reforms which were stipulated for in the Berlin Treaty. In the beginning of November the British Mediterranean fleet was ordered to enter Turkish waters, and Sir A. Layard, in reply to inquiries from the Turkish Government, stated that his Government could not tolerate any further delay in the execution of the reforms promised in Asia Minor. The Turkish Government yielded to these representations, and promised to carry out the reforms. (See TURKEY.)

The religious complexion of Asia appears to be approaching a considerable change. Mohammedanism, which has been in modern times the most progressive of the Asiatic re