We designed, when we commenced this article, to have followed our traveler in his visits to the other points of observation embraced in his tour. But the great length of the interesting memoir of that "Prince of Merchants," the late Thomas H. Perkins, in a former part of the present number, compels us reluctantly to defer the subject to a more convenient opportunity.

Art. III. THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA.

LIEUTENANT MAURY has already won a distinguished reputation as an explorer of science, in association with the National Observatory, and his recent work, upon "The Physical Geography of the Sea,"* will cause no diminution of his well-earned fame. In this work he has presented us the result of profound study and observation, acute analysis, and logical deduction, throwing valuable light upon navigation and the physical causes bearing upon it, in connection with the laws which regulate the winds and currents, and other phenomena of the sea. It will doubtless exercise. a beneficial influence upon nautical science, and consequently upon the maritime enterprise which is prosecuted upon the ocean.

It appears that the treatise is in some measure based upon the facts indicated by "The Wind and Current Charts," which were constructed from the collected experience of navigators, respecting the winds and currents which prevail in different parts of the ocean. The charts, thus

founded upon the observations of successive navigators who recorded the observations made at the time, are ascertained to be of practical advan tage in determining what would be the circumstances bearing upon any particular voyage, and have tended to diminish the duration of voyages, by enabling mariners to select their courses according to the indications of the chart.

It was formerly customary for navigators to take their courses by what were termed "track charts," which defined the tracks of previous voyages, and thus the ocean was coursed by prescribed roads, which were pursued with almost as little deviation as the turnpike roads of the land. In consequence, with a view to the solution to improved tracks, and the more thorough exploration of the ocean, inducement was proffered, through the agency of the National Observatory at Washington, for masters of vessels to send an abstract log of their voyages to the Department, on con-, dition that they should be provided with a copy of the charts and the sailing directions founded upon them. The result thus far has been an improved knowledge of the best tracks of navigation, and the consequent diminution of the time employed and the distances required to be sailed in such courses.

From the advantages which had been derived from those observations, and the probable benefit of their continuance, the General Government in-, vited all the maritime States of Christendom to a general conference, with a view to a uniform system of observation of the character which has been described. On the 23d of August, 1853, the conference was held at Brus

The Physical Geography of the Sea. By M. F. MAURY, LL. D., Lieut. U. S. Navy. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1855.

sels. It was constituted of representatives from the United States, England, France, Russia, Norway, Sweden, Holland, Denmark, Belgium, and Portugal.

A uniform plan of observation which should be conducted on board the vessels of the respective countries was recommended. Co-operation in the same cause was subsequently proffered by Spain, Prussia, Hamburg, the republics of Bremen and Chili, and the empires of Austria and Brazil. The minute records of meteorological and other observations which will doubtless be made by the vessels of those nations, will probably furnish the basis of more improved charts.

The present work contains precisely those scientific observations and deductions which might be anticipated from the investigations to which allusion has been made; and they relate to the circulation of winds and currents, the temperature and depths of the sea, its inhabitants, and the phenomena which it sometimes assumes. We are presented with a philosophical view of the Gulf Stream, which the author terms one of the most marvelous things in the sea; he calls it "a river in the ocean," whose banks and bottom are of cold water, and whose current is warm, with its fountain in the Gulf of Mexico, and its mouth in the Arctic Seas; with a speed more rapid than the Mississippi or the Amazon, with waters as far out from the Gulf as the South Carolina Coast, of an indigo-blue, yet the track so distinctly marked that its line of junction with the common sea water can be discerned by the eye; the water of a quality which appears to possess but little chemical affinity with the ordinary water of the sea. The actual causes which have produced the Gulf Stream have not been ascertained. A theory has been started that it draws its current from the Mississippi-a theory which has been exploded. Others have maintained that it is produced by the escaping waters which have been forced into the Caribbean Sea by the trade winds, the pressing of those winds upon the water forcing up into that sea a head for the stream, a cause which the writer does not deem adequate to the effect.

It would seem that this current exercises an important agency in the physical economy of the ocean. The Niagara is an immense river, descending into a plain, and its channel is lost as it unites with Lake Ontario ; but the waters of the Gulf Stream, to quote the language of the author, "like a stream of oil in the ocean, preserve a distinctive character for more than three thousand miles." Constituting a species of conducting pipe, it is supposed to exert an influence upon climate. He remarks that it is now no longer to be regarded merely "as an immense current of warm water running across the ocean, but as a balance-wheel, a part of that grand machinery by which air and water are adapted to each other, and by which the earth itself is adapted to the well-being of its inhabitants." It is termed by mariners the "weather breeder" of the North Atlantic Ocean, being swept by the most furious gales; while the fogs of Newfoundland, which so much impede navigation, are believed to be derived from the vast bodies of warm water which are carried through it to that

sea.

We are informed that several years ago, inquiries were set on foot by the British Admiralty regarding the storms which prevailed in certain parts of the Atlantic with disastrous results to navigation, and the conclusion to which the investigation arrived was, that they were "occasioned by the irregularity between the temperature of the Gulf Stream and of

the neighboring regions, both in the air and water." This ocean river appears, however, to have been formerly a sea mark of navigation more generally than at the present time, in consequence of the greater skill of seamen and the greater accuracy of nautical instruments in our own day. As early as 1770, the more rapid voyages which were made between our own country and Europe by one class of vessels than by another, were supposed to have been caused by the knowledge of the track of the Gulf Stream.

Another important office performed by this current is, that it furnishes a refuge which supplies a summer heat in mid-winter to mariners, on their approaches to our northern coasts, from the snows and tempests of that

season.

A consideration of the nature of the atmosphere constitutes an important part of the geography of the sea. As there are ascertained to be uniform currents in the sea, so also there are regular currents in the atmosphere. Two zones of perpetual winds extend around the earth, which blow continually, and are alleged by the author to be as constant as the current of the Mississippi. The laws which regulate the winds are uniform, and so are their general courses. Their primum mobile, or original cause, is ascribed to heat; but other causes in combination act upon

them.

We are likewise presented-in connection with a view of atmospheric laws-with a consideration of the red fogs which are sometimes met near the Cape de Verd Islands, as well as of those showers of dust which are precipitated in the Mediterranean, termed "Sirocco dust," and by others "African dust," since they are usually driven by winds supposed to proceed from the Sirocco Desert, or some other parched portion of Africa. Although the vessel may be a hundred miles from land, these showers of dust-of a bright cinnamon color-frequently fall in such quantities as to cover the entire sails and rigging. We are presented with philosophical arguments indicating whence these showers proceed, and how they are blown from the shore and circulated through the atmosphere.

A considerable portion of the volume is devoted to a consideration of "the magnetism and circulation of the atmosphere." It is maintained that heat and cold, rains, clouds, and sunshine, are distributed over the earth in accordance with uniform laws. Indeed, the influence of magnetic forces a subject which has formerly been but partially investigated-is considered in its relation to the circulation of the atmosphere, and even the effect of geographical configurations of territory, is traced in its influences upon climate.

We are told that the sea, like the air, has its system of circulation; and that there are currents running hither and thither, modifying submarine climates, which, like those of the land, furnish resorts for different classes of the inhabitants of the ocean. It must be admitted that the circulation of the waters bears a shade of analogy to sanguineous circulation, although the present state of knowledge upon the subject appears to be somewhat meager. Proof of the circulation of sea water is even derived from the existence of those minute insects that have quarried from the sea those coral islands, reefs, and beds which abound in the Pacific Ocean, constructing shell-like groves, grottoes, and palisades amid the crystal depths, and which without currents supplying new drops for their aliment, would have perished in the very drop of water in which they were produced. Hence,

we say, says the author, "that the sea has its system of circulation, for it transports materials for the coral rock from one part of the world to another, its currents receive them from the rivers, and hand them over to the little mason for the structure of the most stupendous works of solid masonry that man has ever seen-the coral islands of the sea."

Light, heat, electricity, and magnetism, are the forces which are supposed to cause circulation to the atmosphere; but electricity and magnetism are believed to perform an important office in giving dynamical force to the waters in the system of circulation. Marine currents are believed to derive their motive powers from heat; but the author assumes that an active agency in the system of marine circulation is exerted from the salts of the sea, through the medium of winds, marine plants, and animals. In reference to the influence of animal life upon marine circulation, it is remarked that a single little insect secretes from a single drop of water a certain amount of solid matter, constituted of lime, for his cell. By this subtraction the specific gravity of this drop of water is changed, and it must accordingly be displaced by another drop, and it moves about until the original specific gravity is recovered; and here we find one of the principal elements of circulation derived from animal life. Thus it is that these minute insects perform their part in the economy of creation.

snow,

As the sea is divided into regions, characterized by peculiar winds, the clouds perform important offices relating to the production of rain and and causing variations of climate. In that part of the work treating of the geological agency of the winds, the author concludes that the vapor which is condensed into rains, for the valley of the great American lakes of the Northwest, as well as the Mississippi valley generally, and which is carried off by the St. Lawrence, is not derived from the Atlantic, but is taken off by the southeast trade winds of the Pacific Ocean. The precise depth of what is denominated "blue water," is unknown. Soundings of great depth have been reported by officers of our navy-one of 34,000 feet, and another with a line of 39,000 feet. Minute insects have, moreover, been brought up from a depth of more than two miles below the sea level-a portion of that variety of animalculæ, some of which cause the sea to glow as by the influence of phosphorescence. Charts indicating the temperature of the Atlantic, in its various parts, have been constructed from actual observation.

It appears that the highest temperature of the sea occurs during the month of September, and the lowest in the month of March; while upon the land February is deemed the coldest, and August the hottest month. It is likewise maintained that the climate of our own hemisphere is modified by the curve of the line against which the sea dashes in the other.

It is well known that the ocean has its "drift," depending upon causes which have not been ascertained by the present state of nautical science, and that it is subject to violent periodical commotion, from reasons which have not been analyzed. Tracts of colored water-either crimson, brown, black, yellow, or white-have often been perceived, which are supposed to be derived from animal or vegetable organisms. In the present work we have a discussion of the causes which influence the occurrence of tempests, and charts have been constructed, or are in the progress of completion at the Observatory, designed to show the direction and usual time of the occurrence of fogs, calms, light winds, rains, and storms, in the various parts of the sea.

Having pointed out some of the prominent features of Lieut. Maury's able treatise, to which we have been indebted for the facts in the present paper, it may be remarked in conclusion, that it is a valuable work, indicating the author to be profound in science, who has explored with signal ability the laws which govern the ocean, and in this labor he has done an important service to the cause of navigation. The volume is provided with numerous plates which illustrate the text, and it will doubtless attain a wide circulation.

Lieut. Maury dedicates his book to George Manning, Esq., “as a token of friendship and a tribute to worth." Mr. Manning is an intelligent and well-known merchant of New York city. A personal acquaintance of several years, enables us to say that there is no one whom we would be happier to see the recipient of the compliment.

Art. IV. COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CITIES OF EUROPE.

NUMBER XIII.

FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAINE, GERMANY.

FRANKFORT-GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION-HISTORY-GOVERNMENT-ITS POPULATION AND ENORMOUS WEALTH-RESTRICTIONS AS TO CITIZENSHIP-THE RIVER MAINE-PRODUCTS AND MANUFACTURES -GERMAN RAILROADS-PROFITABLE INVESTMENT-THE BANKERS, BROKERS, MERCHANTS, AND TRADES PEOPLE OF FRANKFORT-BANKING ON THE AMERICAN PLAN-DEALERS IN COTTON GOODS, RIBANDS, LACES, JEWELRY, BOOKS, CHEMICALS, ETC.-WORKINGS OF THE ZOLLVEREIN-THE FUR TRADE OF GERMANY-THE PROPOSAL OF SECRETARY GUTHRIE TO ADMIT HATTERS' FUR DUTY FREE SHIPMENTS OF GERMAN WINE, CIGARS, HOSIERY, AND WOOLEN CLOTHS TO THE UNITED STATES-THE SALARIES OF CLERKS, THE WAGES OF MECHANICS, LABORING MEN, AND SERVANTSGERMANY IN ITS POLITICAL ASPECT-THE GERMANIC CONFEDERATION-AUSTRIA, PRUSSIA, AND THE MINOR POWERS, ETC., ETC.

THE famous commercial city of "Frankfort-am-Main," one of the four free cities of Germany, capital of State of same name, and seat of the German government, is situated on both sides of the River Maine, in latitude 50° 8' north, longitude 80° 36'. The city proper is on the north, and its suburb, Sachsenhausen, with which it communicates by a substantial stone bridge of fourteen arches, on the south side of the river.

The old town of Frankfort is antiquated, ill-built, and irregular; but the new town has many noble public and private buildings, and fine thoroughfares, including the Zell, New Mayence-street, Alle, a fine quay along the Maine, the horse-market, &c. The territory of the city, fixed by the Congress of Vienna, contains ninety-five square miles, some 70,000 inhabitants, and 5,000 houses. The government is republican, according to the constitution of May 16, 1816. It has two burgomasters, chosen annually, a legislative senate, and an executive assembly.

Frankfort has the first seat among the free cities, and was a free imperial city in 1154; its rights and privileges being confirmed by the peace of Westphalia. It was made a free port in 1831; is also one of the four great emporiums for supplying Germany with all kinds of merchandise, but the principal source of its great wealth is in extensive banking, com