Gambar halaman
PDF
ePub

excitement of the entire Slavic race, and especially of the Russian people, rose to fever-heat, and foreshadowed the enlargement of the seat of war by the active interference of Russia. As such an event was regarded as affecting generally and intensely the interests of all the nations of the civilized world, a last though unsuccessful attempt was made by the treaty powers of Europe, by an international conference, to avert a new Eastern war. To conciliate public opinion in Europe, the Government of Turkey deemed it necessary to proclaim a constitution conferring upon its inhabitants, of all races and religions, the principal rights enjoyed by the people under constitutional monarchies. The article "Turkey" has, therefore, a prominent place in this volume, and presents an extensive account of the military operations, of the diplomatic negotiations, and of the new constitution. A special map of the seat of the war, giving most of the places mentioned, will be found a valuable aid in following the progress of the above-mentioned military operations. Another map, on the races and religions of Turkey, will greatly facilitate a just. appreciation of the dangerous crisis through which that country is now passing. The attitude of the other great powers of Europe, under the new aspect of the Eastern question, is fully set forth in the articles devoted to their respective countries. The unusual state of affairs in Denmark during the year will be found to be presented in a very clear and satisfactory manner.

The international relations of the United States are presented under the title of "Diplomatic Correspondence."

The special articles on the great religious divisions and denominations constitute, on the whole, a religious history of the year, probably the only one now accessible in the English language.

The advance in the branches of astronomical and chemical science, with new and valuable applications to various purposes, is extensively described. A notice has also been taken of the International Congresses of the adepts of various sciences.

The great engineering enterprises of the world in progress are fully described, and also numerous mechanical improvements.

The narrative of geographical discoveries in the different parts of the earth is very complete; also, under the title "Earth," we present summaries of the area and population of the large divisions of the globe, according to the latest statistical information.

Under "Archæology" will be found very full descriptions of the discoveries of Schliemann and Cesnola.

The results of the Centennial Exhibition are presented in a summary but very complete manner.

The record of Literature and Literary Progress in the United States and in each of the countries of Europe is as important as during any preceding year.

The biographical department is very full, and embraces brief notices of deceased persons of distinction in State, Church, society, and literature; there are also notices of many living persons who were distinguished during the year.

The volume contains numerous illustrations of noted cities and places in the various countries of the world, and also steel portraits of the two leading candidates at the recent presidential election in this country.

All important documents, messages, orders, and letters from officials and others, have been inserted entire.

APPLETONS'

ANNUAL CYCLOPÆDIA.

ABDUL-AZIZ, Sultan of Turkey, born February 9, 1830; died June 4, 1876. He was the thirty-second Sultan of the Turkish Empire, and the second son of Mahmoud II., the first sovereign of Turkey who weakened the fanatical spirit with which the Mussulmen opposed changes in her laws and her military organization. Abdul-Aziz succeeded his brother, the Sultan Abdul-Medjid, on June 25, 1861. On ascending the throne he imitated the conduct of his predecessor at his accession in 1839, introducing some reforms, and announcing that he would make many more which would put Turkey on an equality with the Christian nations of Europe. Like Abdul-Medjid, he inherited from his father, Mahmoud, the belief that it would be well to modernize Turkey. His accession to the throne awakened great hopes, as it was thought that he was brave, patriotic, and determined. To the great regret of the Old Turkish party, he confirmed the hatti-sherif of Gylhane, and the hatti-humayun of 1856, and thus bound himself to the execution of the great reforms depending upon those documents. He, furthermore, promised to restore order in the interior, and economy in the finances, and in this latter measure led the way by reducing his own civil list $3,000,000, and by dismissing his brother's seraglio. Changes were also made among the high officers of state, none of which, however, betrayed a peculiar policy or a firm determination on the part of the Sultan. He showed a great fondness for the army, increased the number of soldiers, introduced new uniforms and armaments, thus swelling the budget very largely, while the actual condition of the troops remained unchanged. In the midst of these great financial difficulties, a reform of the ministry of finance was begun, and a commission appointed to take charge of the public debt. These and other measures led to the contraction of a number of loans, by means of which

VOL. XVI.-1 Α

A

the national credit was to be restored, but which, in reality, were wasted for the most trivial purposes. In 1863 he paid a visit to the viceroy of Egypt, which at the time was looked on with suspicious eyes by the other nations of Europe. This journey, as well as the reception ceremonies instituted by his mother, again consumed large amounts of money. In 1862 his armies conquered the Montenegrins, but the impending ruin of his empire became all the more apparent. In the Danubian principalities he had to acknowledge Prince Charles of Hohenzollern, who thus converted another Turkish dependency from an elective into an hereditary monarchy. In spite of the dissatisfaction prevailing throughout the entire empire, he undertook in 1867 a journey through Europe, in the course of which he visited the Paris Exhibition, and passed through England, Germany, and Austria. This journey, which had consumed a large amount of money, was looked upon by a number of enthusiasts as an event of great importance in the history of civilization. The civilization of Europe had indeed made a deep impression upon the Sultan, and he declared, upon his reception by the Grand-Vizier, that he would make it his chief aim to develop the means of communication, the public credit, and the education of his nation. But in spite of his good intentions, and of many reforms introduced by him, the political and social condition of the empire remained virtually unchanged. In March, 1868, a change took place in the formation of the Council of State, which henceforth was to be the central government for the whole empire. In opening this constitutional council, which was composed of thirtyfour Mohammedans and sixteen Christians, he delivered a speech in person, in which he promised reformatory legislation, reports on the condition of the empire, and an approach to European civilization. In the mean time the

continued anarchy existing in his empire, and the insurrection in Candia, occupied the entire attention of himself and of his ministers, and at the same time absorbed the resources of the empire. In the year previous, giving way to the counsels of the other European nations, and in order not to be involved in difficulties

successor had his body examined by a number of physicians, who arrived at the following verdict:

1. That the death of the ex-Sultan Abdul-Aziz was caused by the hæmorrhage produced by the wounds made in the blood-vessels of the bends of the arms. 2. That the instrument shown to us could perfectly inflict those wounds.

8. That the direction and nature of the injuries, as well as the instrument which caused them, lead us to conclude it to be a case of suicide.

The report was signed by the following physicians:

A favorite scheme pursued by Abdul-Aziz, during the greater part of his reign, aimed at the abolition of the law of seniority by which he himself had ascended the throne, to the exclusion of the sons of his brother, and for which he desired to substitute a law similar to that prevailing in other European states, thus giving the throne to his oldest son in preference to his nephew Murad Effendi, who was entitled to it by the law of succession then prevailing. To prepare the way for this important change, he permitted the introduction of a similar law in Egypt; empowered his nephew Murad to establish his own household by making him a pasha, thus destroying the exclusiveness of the imperial harem, and finally abolished the barbarous custom of killing all male children of princesses married to high officers of state. On his journey through Europe, in 1867, he also endeavored by all possible means to have his son regarded as his successor, while he kept his nephews in the background. His plans, however, failed, and he was succeeded by his nephew Murad. See Azam, "L'avénement d'Abdul-Aziz" (1861); Millingen (OsmanSeify-Bey), "La Turquie sous la règne d'Abdoul-Aziz" (1868). See also MURAD V., and TURKEY.

with Servia while having the revolt in Candia on his hands, he had withdrawn the Turkish garrison from the important fortress of Belgrade, and had thus granted Servia complete political autonomy. In addition to this state of affairs, a confict threatened with Greece in Dr. Marco, doctor to Abdul-Aziz Khan; Dr. Nouri, 1868, which country was aiding the rebels in Dr. Sotto, attache of the imperial and royal emCandia. As a war against Greece would have bassy of Austria and Hungary; Dr. Spagnolo, Italbrought on new complications with the Euro- ian; Dr. Marc Markel, of the British embassy; Dr. pean powers, the Sultan, although hating the I. de Casho, Italian; Dr. A. Marroni, of the French Greeks, and dreaming of the restoration of the Dickson, of the British embassy; Dr. O. Vitalis, of embassy; Dr. Jules Mullingen, English; Dr. G. D. power and the glory of his empire, permitted the Sanitary Administration; Dr. Eduard Spodaro, the difficulties to be adjusted by his ministers Italian; Dr. Nouridjan, Armenian; Dr. Iatropoulo, at a conference of the powers in Paris. The Hellenic; Dr. Abdinour, Dr. Servet, Dr. Miltiade Bey, Greek; Dr. Moustapha, Dr. Mehemet. victory here gained by Turkish diplomacy gave the Sultan and his government the courage and the power to force Ismail Pasha, who in 1867 had been invested with the title of khedive of Egypt, and who had for some time been meditating to throw off his allegiance to the Sultan, to an apparent subjection, so that in 1870 the latter came to Constantinople as if suing for mercy. But in the visits of 1872 which the khedive paid the Sultan, he succeeded, by making a wise use of the financial embarrassments of the latter, in regaining the concessions made at his previous visit, and in obtaining at the same time a new law of succession for his house, and almost all the prerogatives of an independent sovereign. In the mean while the condition in the immediate dominions of the Sultan assumed every day more threatening forms. One ministry followed another at short intervals, while the influence of the Russian embassador, General Ignatieff, had become all-powerful with the Sultan. The state of the finances had fallen so low that the revenues barely sufficed to pay the interest on the public debt. This was the condition of the country when in 1875 the revolt in the Herzegovina broke out, which, originating in the refusal of a few villages to pay still further the exorbitant taxes imposed upon them, soon spread over the whole province of Bosnia. Owing to the depleted condition of the treasury, the government of the Sultan was unable to meet it with such energy as it demanded. AbdulAziz himself appeared to be entirely unable to comprehend the gravity of the situation. In this emergency the softas, the theological students, demanded his abdication, and the council of ministers, in the name of the nation, decreed his removal from the throne, proclaiming his nephew Murad V. as his successor. Shortly afterward, on June 4th, he was found dead in his chambers. As rumors began to circulate that he had been assassinated at the instigation of the existing government, his

ABDUL-HAMID II., Sultan of Turkey, was born September 22, 1842. He is the second son and fourth child of Abdul-Medjid. He succeeded his brother, Murad V., as Sultan of Turkey, on August 31, 1876. His life has been quiet and uneventful. His mother died young, and he was adopted by his father's second wife, herself childless, who is very wealthy, and has made him heir to all her property. During the lifetime of his father he, as well as his elder brother, the deposed Murad V., led a merry life, his every wish and fancy being indulged to the utmost, his education chiefly consisting in being diverted by the amusements and tricks devised for his entertainment by the numerous slaves surrounding

him. His initiation into all the depravities of harem life was unusually early and complete; but his vigorous constitution withstood the effects of the excesses that undermined his brother's health, and when he married he was a strong, hardy lad. He accompanied his uncle, Abdul-Aziz, and his brother Murad, to the Paris Exhibition in 1867. On this journey he was continually kept in the background by his uncle, who wished to advance the interests of his own son as heir-apparent to the throne. Abdul-Hamid also acquired on this journey a great taste for geography, and in his kiosk on the Sweet Waters, which he has since inhabited regularly every summer, he has a very extensive and comprehensive collection of maps, military, geological, and statistical, the study of which constitutes his favorite pastime. He also contracted a fondness for European manners and dress, and has introduced French customs and demeanor into the daily life of all those by whom he is intimately surrounded. He inherited from his father a small palace on the Sweet Waters, where he resided with his wife and two children, a boy of six and a girl of three years, up to his elevation to the throne, eating at the same table, and playing with the little ones. He is an orthodox Turk, and a resolute opponent of the "Young Turkish" party-being an "Old Turk," but not an extreme one. He is considered a much abler man, mentally and physically, than his brother whom he succeeded. The only symptom of Orientalism in his own personal appearance is in the fez, which he dislikes, but still continues to wear, because it is the necessary token of his nationality. The state of affairs has not been changed by his accession to the throne. He introduced a few financial reforms, but the condition of the empire remains in the same precarious state as under his predecessor. (See TURKEY.)

ABYSSINIA, a country of Eastern Africa; area about 158,000 square miles; population variously estimated at from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000.

The war with Egypt continued during the year. The cause for this war was stated by Egyptian authorities to be the punishment of bands of Abyssinians, who for more than three years had disturbed the neighboring territory, and continued their depredations in spite of all remonstrances with King John. At the same time all commercial intercourse with Egypt was prohibited, and a small army was stationed in Hamasen for hostile purposes. Hamasen, the scene of all these battles, is the northern part of Tigré, that part of Abyssinia lying nearest to the Red Sea. On the north, east, and west, it is surrounded by Egyptian territory. The Abyssinians, on the other hand, claim that the war was commenced by Egypt for the sole purpose of aggrandizement; that only one incursion of any account had been made by Abyssinians into Egyptian territory during the year, that of the Dembelas to Ku

nama in 1873, which was, however, immediately punished by Munzinger. This raid was decidedly free from all political objects; it was one of those made to capture slaves and cattle, and undertaken regularly every year, not only by the Abyssinians, but also by the Egyptian troops and the Mohammedan tribe of the Algedes against the heathen tribe of the Kunamas. Munzinger put an end to these raids by the Egyptian troops and the Algedes, and since the defeat of the Dembelas they have also entirely ceased on the part of the Abyssinians. The other disturbances resulted from quarrels between the different nomadic tribes, where it was hard to tell who was right and who was wrong. These quarrels deserve no attention, and were only raised to the dignity of state affairs by Egyptian officials in Massowah and Keren. The statement that the Abyssinians interrupted commerce also lacked all foundation. Every day a larger or smaller number of Abyssinian traders arrived in Massowah, while Arabians traveled unmolested through all parts of Abyssinia. Only with Amhara the intercourse was temporarily interrupted by internal disturbances. There were also no Abyssinian troops in Hamasen at any time; only in Asmara, on the road from Massowah to Adowa, a few troops were kept by the governor of the town to preserve_order.-After the decisive defeat which the Egyptians sustained at the close of 1875, the Khedive immediately took measures to retrieve the disaster. A large army was collected in Massowah early in January, under the command of Prince Hassan, the khedive's son, General Loring, and Ratib Pasha. This expedition left Massowah on January 10th, and toward the end of the same month reached Goura, 50 miles south-southwest of Massowah, without having encountered the slightest obstacle. An intrenched camp was then established, to let the soldiers rest without exposing them to surprise; for it was known that King John, at the head of the armed population of Abyssinia. was moving about the provinces. According to the spies, he did not wish to disperse his army in face of an invasion of the country, because none of his provinces were rich enough to permit him to fix himself anywhere with his troops. The Egyptian expedition, without provisions, remained a month in the intrenched camp at Goura without seeing the enemy. On February 17th they were informed by spies that King John and his army would have to pass between the intrenched camp and the defile of Cazachor. The Egyptian troops, then placed under the command of Osman Pasha, consisted of three batteries and nine battalions. The batteries, armed with mountain-pieces, and seven battalions, left the intrenched camp, and took up their position, six kilometres ahead, on the slope of two hills forming a valley, which, prolonging itself beyond them, becomes a plain of some miles in extent. The bed of a dried-up stream passes at the bottom

[merged small][merged small][ocr errors][graphic][subsumed][merged small]

file, this was simply a ruse of war. Behind them soldiers had entered the dried-up bed of the stream; crawling along the ground, they got round the hills on which the Egyptian troops were massed. These hills they ascended from the opposite side, and then, once arrived at the summit, by thousands, men and women, soldiers on foot and on horseback, from behind rocks, trees, and hollows, rushed down with furious cries on the rear flanks of the Egyptians. Dreadful confusion ensued. The Egyptians made no attempt at resistance. Driven on both sides, they rushed into the dry channel; panic seized them; the artillerymen abandoned their pieces in the van, and added to the confusion. The bulk of the Abyssinian army crossed the valley and engaged with the soldiers of the Nile. They fought hand to hand. Hassan Pasha, with heroic efforts, then succeeded in gathering around him some of the officers, with 500 or 600 soldiers, who, together forming a compact body, fought their way through the Abyssinians to the intrenched camp. Of the seven battalions and three batteries this was all that survived. Rachid Bey, Giebri Bey, Colonel Deve, and many other foreign and Egyptian officers, remained dead or wounded on the field of battle. The fol

He

lowing day, while the intrenched camp, reduced in number to 2,000, was fortifying, the enemy did not appear. The day after that they were seen in the distance, but disappeared before the firing with which they were received. On the 19th they made an assault, but were repulsed. A cannon-ball passed close to King John; he was thrown from his horse, and the assault was interrupted. On the fourth day the Egyptians succeeded in projecting explosive balls into the Abyssinian camp. This caused great terror, and the day after a messenger arrived from King John. "It was time," he said, "to put an end to this struggle. was ready to make honorable concessions and to come to a humane arrangement." They required him to consent to a rectification of their frontiers, and to return the prisoners, and arms; in fact, to act as if he had been defeated. The Abyssinians on the other hand demanded the cession of Massowah. As this virtually implied the complete abandonment of Hamasen, which the Egyptians claimed belonged to them, the demand was refused, and all available troops were sent to Massowah. In the mean while an Abyssinian chief, Walda Michael, revolted against King John, incited, as it was supposed, by the Egyptians. On Au

« SebelumnyaLanjutkan »