INTRODUCTION I THE ORIGIN AND PRESENT LITERARY FORM OF THE OLD NARRATIVES nings el's na ISRAEL'S national and literary history begins with the establishment of The beginthe Hebrew monarchy under Saul. Up to this time the only records of the past appear to have been disconnected popular traditions, recounted be- of Israside the camp fire, in the secret of the harem, at marriage feasts, at the tional history local sanctuaries, during the annual feasts, at the wells, or beside the city gates, wherever men or women were gathered together and the story-teller could find an audience (cf. Vol. I, p. 13). These early stories, many of which are found in the first eight books of the Old Testament, undoubtedly preserve a great number of significant historical facts, but they do not constitute a national history, for the oldest and most authentic stories originated before the Israelitish tribes had yet crystallized into a nation, and the narratives furnish only occasional pictures of the more important acts and actors in that great drama which later unfolded on the soil of Palestine. They represent rather the prologue to the subsequent history, since they record the movements of the nomadic ancestors of the Hebrews and the early struggles of the individual tribes to secure and maintain possession of the much-contested land of Canaan. Through these varied traditions the historian is able to trace in outline at least the beginnings of Hebrew history. ditions the of his Before there can be a history in the generally accepted sense of that term, Conthere must be historians possessed of the facilities for recording their facts and favorevents worthy of record and calculated to inspire them to write. In ancient able for Israel these two conditions were first met and then fully supplied during writing the brilliant reigns of David and Solomon. The assimilation of the highly tory developed civilization of the Canaanites and the diplomatic and commercial relations with other centres of literary culture, such as Egypt, Phoenicia, and Damascus, gave the Hebrew historians their system of writing and also precedents to follow. From the days of David recorders and scribes figure among the court officials. The dramatic, epoch-making events of the reigns of Saul and David gave them themes well worthy of the pen of patriotic historians. The national pride, and splendor, and comparative peace of the reign of Solomon also afforded them the atmosphere and opportunity which undoubtedly gave rise to the earliest Hebrew historical records. Liter ary These were either very brief annals of important events, such as the sucform of cessions of kings, wars, building enterprises, treaties, and alliances, or else the oral traditions which recounted the deeds of important religious or military records leaders, like Samuel and Saul and David. Both of these very different earliest The introduc tion types of sources underlie the narrative of Samuel and Kings. As the history unfolded, the tendency became marked to weave these various sources into a continuous narrative. Naturally, later historians would also further supplement the older records with current traditions regarding the earlier period. Thus it is that the narratives of Samuel and Kings have all the literary characteristics-absence of technical details, the few characters, the striking contrasts, the vividness, and the dramatic action-of the primitive traditions regarding the beginnings of Hebrew life. The story of David's family history, for example, is presented in II Samuel 9-20 in a literary form that suggests the great tragedies of Greece. The dramatic dialogue is also effectively employed, as in the more primitive traditions, to make the history realistic. The result is that the characters live and move and speak before the awakened imagination of the reader. When the Hebrew prophets became preachers and statesmen, swaying public opinion by the power of their voice and by the divine messages which of ser- they proclaimed in the form of public addresses, the historians also introand ad- duced sermons and long orations into their narratives. This literary form mons dresses Prominence is common to all literature. Mark Antony's famous address in Shakespeare's Julius Cæsar is perhaps the most familiar modern example. This effective form of narration was in Hebrew literature but the natural outgrowth of the ancient oracle, as for example Jacob's blessing in Genesis 49, and of the dialogue. It appears first and most prominently in the writings of the later Ephraimite school, which bore the stamp of Hosea's strong, inspiring personality, and was still further developed by its Judean heir, the late prophetic or Deuteronomic school (cf. Vol. I, Introd., pp. 37-42). The most striking examples in the opening books of the Old Testament are the farewell addresses of Moses in Deuteronomy and Joshua in Joshua 23 and 24. In Samuel and Kings there are also many examples: Samuel's long sermons in I Samuel 8 and 12, Nathan's in II Samuel 7, Solomon's speech at the dedication of the temple in I Kings 8, and Ahijah's warnings in 1131-39 and 147-16. In each case the language and ideas indicate that these are from the later schools of writers. In the didactic stories in Chronicles, which are based on the earlier narratives of Samuel and Kings, these hortatory addresses are still more common. They are in fact the favorite literary form of the later Jewish writers, as is shown by the long prayers in Ezra 9 and Nehemiah 9, and even by the speeches attributed to Judas and his fellowleaders in the more strictly historical books of I and II Maccabees. Israel's historians were always more interested in individual men than in movements. Since their chief sources were also current traditions reof personal garding popular heroes, the texture of their histories largely consists of perbiographies sonal biographies, which they have woven together into a larger whole. Remove from the historical books the biographies of Samuel, Saul, David, Solomon, Jeroboam, Ahab, Elijah, Elisha, Jehu, Hezekiah, Isaiah, Jere miah, Nehemiah, and Ezra, and little besides bare statistics and the record of three or four important events in the history of the temple remain. It is this prominent personal element that constitutes the chief charm of the narratives; while their vital touch with actual men and real life is the main source of their permanent and practical value. aim not cal but ious The prominence of the biographical element is likewise due to the fact Domithat the authors of the so-called historical books were not primarily his- nant torians, but rather religious teachers seeking apt and familiar illustrations historiof the spiritual truths which impelled them to write. From Israel's history relig as a whole they drew many valuable lessons, but even more from the life of a hero like David, or of an intrepid champion of righteousness like Elijah. Hence the Old Testament records lack historic proportion. David's final epoch-making victory over the Philistines is only meagrely described, while to his private family history many chapters are devoted. Omri's important reign is dismissed with a few verses, while four chapters are given to describing the work of the Tishbite prophet. This fact is the basis of the common assertion that there is strictly speaking no real history in Hebrew literature until we reach the Maccabean period. The books which are designated as historical are either collections of historical illustrations, which enforce prophetic principles, or else traditions regarding the temple and the origin of its later ceremonial institutions. cations that lier his consist of quo The amount of authentic data which such books as Samuel, Kings, and IndiEzra-Nehemiah contain at once place them in the first rank among the historical records coming from antiquity, but the historical facts are neverthe- the earless incidental, although for this reason none the less valuable. It is ex- torical ceedingly important, therefore, always to remember the higher ethical and books religious purpose which determined the form and contents of these books. chiefly This, as well as the fact that they consist largely of quotations from earlier tations works, explains their lack of unity and the presence of occasional contradictions. These are but the guide-posts which point the way back to the original sources and make it possible to trace the complex literary history of these composite books and thus to do the work of reconstruction which is necessary, before they can be fully appreciated as literature, as history, and above all as illustrations of those eternal principles which regulate the life of nations and men. of the uel and The fact that the aim of Samuel and Kings was primarily prophetic rather History than historical was recognized by the Jews who formed the Old Testament books canon, for they classified them, together with Joshua and Judges, as The of SamFormer Prophets. In reality the two books of Samuel, together with those Kings of Kings, constitute one continuous narrative, bound together by closest bonds. The Greek translators so treated them, calling them the Books of the Kingdoms, dividing them into their present divisions. Jerome gave them the title of Kings, and in the case of the second two he has been followed by the English translators, while the first two retain their Hebrew title. The books of Samuel trace the history of the Hebrews from the latter Conpart of the period of the Judges to the accession of Solomon, and therefore I and II represent approximately one century. In the present form they consist of Samuel tents of Principle of ar ment in five general divisions: (1) Samuel and Saul narratives, I Samuel 1-15; (2) stories regarding the rise of David and the decline and death of Saul, 16-31; (3) the account of David's rule first over Judah and then over all Israel, II Samuel 1-8; (4) David's family history, 9-20; (5) an appendix, 21-24. In I Samuel the principle of arrangement is in general chronological. In 1-15, however, two very different portraits of Samuel are given: in the one range (9, 10) he is the local seer of Ramah, who finds Saul and encourages him I Sam- to become king, but in the other (7, 8, 12), the prophet-judge, who protestingly at the demand of the people turns over the supreme authority to their first king. In the one also (13, 14), the Philistines are defeated by Saul in a fierce engagement, but in the other (7) they are miraculously smitten in response to Samuel's prayer. The duplicate versions in 16-31 of certain of the more important incidents also indicate that the book is composite throughout, and that its literary unity and chronological arrangement are due to the careful work of the editor. uel In II In II Samuel the material is grouped according to subject matter. In Samuel 1-8 the most important political events in David's reign are briefly outlined, beginning with his accession to the throne of Judah and concluding with a summary of his foreign wars. The events recounted in 9-20 are in part contemporary with those recorded in 1-8, but they trace the series of crimes in his family and court which so sadly dimmed the lustre of his reign. Their natural and probably original sequel is found in I Kings 1 and 2. The last division contains a heterogeneous group of narratives, which were evidently taken from various sources, and probably added to the original book of Samuel after it was separated from Kings. It includes an account of the fate of Saul's sons (211-14), which is closely related in theme to 9, a description of the exploits of David's heroes, 2115-22, 238-39, into the midst of which at a comparatively late date Psalm 18 and David's traditional “Last Words" were introduced, and finally the record of a census, which appears to belong to the period of David's foreign wars. In the character of its contents, and in their relation to the narratives in the rest of the book this appendix closely resembles that found at the end of Judges (17-20). Unlike Judges and Kings, the books of Samuel have received few editorial additions. Aside from a few chronological notes, the earlier material has simply been grouped without being fitted into an editorial framework. Con tents of the of In the books of Kings the work of the editor is much more prominent. Beginning with the accession of Solomon and the death of David about books 975 B.C., he traces the double thread of Hebrew history to the Babylonian Kings exile and Jehoiachin's liberation in 561 B.C.; the books therefore represent a period of about four centuries. The principle of arrangement is prevailingly chronological, although groups of stories, as for example the Elisha traditions (II Kgs. 21-815), are introduced as a unit. Three general divisions may be distinguished: (1) the records of Solomon's reign, I Kings 1-11; (2) the parallel history of Israel and Judah, I Kings 12-II Kings 17; (3) the history of Judah, II Kings 18–25. In the first division the editor's contributions appear chiefly in 11, where he condemns Solomon's foreign marriages and the toleration of heathen edito work cults in Israel. Beginning with the history of the two kingdoms after the The division, he incorporates his data regarding each reign in a regular frame- rial work, consisting of an introductory and concluding formula. The opening frameone always defines the synchronism with the neighboring kingdom and the length of the reign (cf. Appendix II for a fuller treatment of Hebrew chronology). To this is added in the case of the kings of Judah the name of the queen-mother. It concludes with a general judgment upon each king. Upon the rulers of Israel this is always adverse, for the basis of the condemnation appears to be the ruler's attitude toward the religion of Jehovah, and in the opinion of the editor the northern cult was altogether wrong because it centred about the high places selected by Jeroboam I to rival the temple at Jerusalem (I Kgs. 1226-33). Occasionally detailed reasons for the condemnation are also given (cf. I Kgs. 1422-24, 1511-14, 1630-33). The concluding formula includes a reference to the editor's source and a record of the death of the king and the name of his successor. To this is added, in the case of the kings of Judah who did not come to a violent end, the statement that, he slept with his fathers. ical sec and miah Parallel to the narrative of Kings and for the most part simply quoted Historfrom it are the historical sections in the book of Isaiah (36-39). Far tions in more important are the corresponding passages in Jeremiah (26, 34, 36- Isaiah 45), for they richly supplement the narrative of Kings, which unfortu- Jerenately has only a brief account of the events immediately preceding and following the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. These historical sections in Jeremiah are doubly valuable because they appear to be taken from a practically contemporary biography of Jeremiah, probably written by his faithful scribe Baruch. records tents of of icles It is a striking and fortunate fact that with few exceptions the most im- Parallel portant events and epochs in the biblical history are recorded in two or more distinct books. The beginnings of Israel's history and the work and teachings of the Founder of Christianity are presented in four parallel strands of narrative. For the period beginning with Saul and extending to the Babylonian exile there are two, and at certain points three distinct records. The second continuous history of Israel is found in the books of Chron- Conicles. They begin with a group of genealogical tables, which goes back to the Adam, and carry the history down to the decree of Cyrus permitting the books Jews to return after the Babylonian exile. Their dependence upon the older Chronbooks of Samuel and Kings is clearly shown by the presence of many verbatim quotations. To these are added long sections which give this later history its distinctive form. Although it traces the genealogy of the race back to Adam, the narrative really begins with the death of Saul and henceforth focusses the attention on Judah, the temple, and especially the religious institutions which grew up about it. The books of Chronicles consist of four general divisions: (1) An introduction containing genealogical lists, interspersed with brief narratives, I Chronicles 1-9; (2) the history of David's reign, 10-29; (3) an account of Solomon's reign, II Chronicles 1-9; (4) the history of Judah to the fall of Jerusalem, with an appendix containing the decree of Cyrus, 10-36. |