20 mited in extent. may Truth or knowledge, explained by fixed principles, becomes science. Words, lines, rules, definitions, are the medium of communication. The question, then, with respect to physiognomy, will thus be fairly stated. Can the striking and marked differences which are visible between one human face, one human form, and another, be explained, not by obscure and confused conceptions, but by certain characters, signs, and expressions? Are these signs capable of communicating the vigour or imbecility, the sickness or health, of the body; the wisdom, the folly, the magnanimity, the meanness, the virtue, or the vice, of the mind? Experi- It is only to a certain extent that even the experimenment is li- tal philosopher can pursue his researches. The active and vigorous mind, employed in such studies, will often form conceptions which he shall be incapable of expressing in words, so as to communicate his ideas to the feebler mind, which was itself unable to make the discovery: But the lofty, the exalted mind, which soars beyond all written rule, which possesses feelings and energies reducible to no law, must be pronounced unscientific. 21 Physiognomical truth certain Jength. It will be admitted, then, that to a certain degree may be de physiognomical truth may as a science be defined and fined and communicated. Of the truth of the science, there cancommuni- not exist a doubt. Every countenance, every form, evecated to a ry created existence, is individually distinct, as well as different, in respect of class, race, and kind. No one being in nature is precisely similar to another. This proposition, in so far as regards man, is the foundationstone of physiognomy. There may exist an intimate analogy, a striking similarity, between two men, who yet being brought together, and accurately compared, will appear to be remarkably different. No two minds perfectly resemble each other. Now, is it possible to doubt that there must be a certain native analogy between the external varieties of countenance and form and the internal varieties of the mind? By anger the muscles are rendered protuberant: Are not, then, the angry mind, and the protuberant muscles, as cause and effect? The man of acute wit has frequently a quick and lively eye. Is it possible to resist the conclusion, that between such a mind and such a countenance there is a determinate relation? 22 to man. Every thing in nature is estimated by its physiognomy; that is, its external appearance. The trader judges by the colour, the fineness, the exterior, the physiognomy of every article of traffic; and he at once decides that the buyer" has an honest look," or "a pleasing or forbidding countenance. This knowThat knowledge and science are detrimental to man, ledge, howthat a state of rudeness and ignorance are preferable and ever improved would productive of more happiness, are tenets now deservedly not be de exploded. They do not merit serious opposition. The trimental extension and increase of knowledge, then, is an object of importance to man: And what object can be so important as the knowledge of man himself? If knowledge can influence his happiness, the knowledge of himself must influence it the most. This useful knowledge is the peculiar province of the science of physiog nomy. To conceive a just idea of the advantages of physiognomy, let us for a moment suppose that all phy siognomical knowledge were totally forgotten among men; what confusion, what uncertainty, what numberless mistakes, would be the consequence? Men destined to live in society must hold mutual intercourse. The knowledge of man imparts to this intercourse its spirit, its pleasures, its advantages. 23 Physiognomy is a source of pure and exalted mental it affords gratification. It affords a new view of the perfection of great men tal gratifiDeity; it displays a new scene of harmony and beauty cation. in his works; it reveals internal motives, which without it would only have been discovered in the world to come. The physiognomist distinguishes accurately the permanent from the habitual, the habitual from the accidental, in character. Difficulties, no doubt, attend the study 24 of this science. The most minute shades, scarcely dis- Dificulties cernible to the unexperienced eye, denote often total op- in the stuposition of character. A small inflexion, diminution, dy. lengthening or sharpening, even though but of a hair'sbreadth, may alter in an astonishing degree the expression of countenance and character. How difficult then, how impossible indeed, must this variety of the same countenance render precision? The seat of character is often so hidden, so masked, that it can only be detected in certain, perhaps uncommon, positions of countenance. These positions may be so quickly changed, the signs may so instantaneously disappear, and their impression on the mind of the observer may be so slight, or these distinguishing traits themselves so difficult to scize, that it shall be impossible to paint them or describe them in language. Innumerable great and small accidents, whether physical or moral, various incidents and passions, the diversity of dress, of position, of light or shade, tend to display the countenance often in so disadvantageous a point of view, that the physiognomist is betrayed into an erroneous judgment of the true qualities of the countenance and character. Such causes often occasion him to overlook the essential traits of character, and to form a decision on what is purely accidental.-How surprisingly, for instance, may the smallpox disfigure the countenance, and destroy or confound, or render imperceptible, traits otherwise the most decisive? 25 We shall, then, continues Lavater, grant to the op- May one poser of phiosognomy all he can ask; and yet we do not day be oblive without hopes that many of the difficulties shall be resolved which at first appeared inexplicable. viated. 26 He then proceeds to a specific illustration of his sub- The nature ject under a great variety of titles, in which he treats of of Lavahuman nature in general, and of each particular feature ter's work. separately. To enumerate the different divisions of his book would not be more satisfactory to our readers than the perusal of the contents of the book itself; and an attempt to epitomize even the essential substance of the vast multiplicity of matter contained in his essays, (which are yet only fragments, and to which indeed he himself does not pretend to give any higher appellation), would extend this article to a disproportionate length. Such an abridgement, after all, would convey no solid information on a subject which merits all the time and study that an attentive perusal of Lavater's works at large would require. 27 Probable causes of the disrepute into From the historical deduction of the literary progress of physiognomy which we have thus attempted to lay before our readers, it appears, that although the science which this has fallen into disrepute, there can scarcely be mention-science has 3 K 2 ed fallen, 28 There is a tween the face. ed a period in which any cultivation of science took place when physiognomy was not likewise the study, nay sometimes even the profession, of men of the most eminent abilities and the greatest learning. The reasons why at present so little attention is paid to the subject probably are, ploy another, we find it has all the force of which it is susceptible; and if we return to the former faculty, it is observed that it has resumed its usual vigour. It is thus that, when fatigued with reading an abstract philosophical work, we proceed with pleasure to a poetical one, and then resume with the same attention our former oc 1st, That it has been treated in conjunction with sub-cupation." jects now with propriety exploded: And, 2dly, That it has been injured by the injudicious assertions and arguments of those who have undertaken its defence. Sometimes, however, the wise and the learned may err. The use of any thing must not be rejected for no better reason than that it is capable of abuse. Perhaps the era is not distant when physiognomy shall be reinstated in the rank which she merits among the valuable branches of human knowledge, and be studied with that degree of attention and perseverance which a subject deserves so essentially connected with the science of man. That there is an intimate relation between the disporelation be- sitions of the mind and the features of the countenance is a fact which cannot be questioned. He who is sinkdispositions of the mind ing under a load of grief for the death of an affectionate and the fea- wife or a dutiful child, has a very different cast of features of the tures from the man who is happy in the prospect of meeting his mistress. A person boiling with anger has a threatening air in his countenance, which the most heedless observer never mistakes; and if any particular disposition be indulged till it become habitual, there cannot be a doubt but that the corresponding traces will be so fixed in the face as to be discernible by the skilful physiognomist, under every effort made to disguise them. But when we attempt to decide on a man's intellectual powers by the rules of this science, we are often deceived; and in this respect we have reason to believe that Lavater himself has fallen into the grossest mistakes. 29 Craniogno of Dr Gall. Connected with physiognomy, we may consider the mic system craniognomic system of Dr Gall of Vienna, which is so called, because, from the exterior form of the cranium, he infers the powers and dispositions of the mind. The brain, he observes, is the material organ of the action of the mind; and as it increases in direct proportion to the faculties of animals, he has endeavoured to prove, that the faculties are distinct and independent on each other; that each has its proper material organ, and that the expansion of the organ is in proportion to the strength of the faculty. This system is attempted to be established by the following reasoning. "The internal faculties, (says Dr Bojanus, the author of a view of this system), do not always exist in the same proportion to each other. There are some men who have a great deal of genius without having a memory, who have courage without circumspection, and who possess a metaphysical spirit without being good observers. "Besides, the phenomena of dreaming, of somnambulism, of delirium, &c. prove to us that the internal faculties do not always act together; that there is often a very great activity of one, while the rest are not sensible. "Thus, in old age, and sometimes in disease, such, for example as madness, several faculties are lost, while others subsist; besides a continued employment of the same faculty sensibly diminishes its energy: If we em "All these phenomena prove that the faculties are distinct and independent of each other, and we are inclined to believe that the case is the same with their material organs." "[We do not entirely agree with this idea of Dr Gall, and we believe, on the contrary, that the separation of the material organs ought to be considered as the cause of the distinction of the internal faculties. It appears, to us at least, that by supposing the faculties themselves as originally separated, we cannot save ourselves from falling into materialism, which exists when the mind is no longer considered as unity.] "The expansion of the organs contained in the cra. nium is in the direct ratio of the force of their corresponding faculties." "This principle, dictated by analogy, rests on this axiom, that throughout all nature the faculties are always found to be proportioned to their relative organs; and the truth of it is proved in a special manner by the particular observations of Dr Gall. "It is however to be remarked, that exercise has a great influence on the force of the faculties, and that an organ moderately expanded, but often exercised, can give a faculty superior to that which accompanies a very extensive organ never put in action; as we see that a man of a weak conformation acquires, by continued exercise, strength superior to another of a more athletic structure. "[We must here mention an opinion which seems to result immediately from this principle, and which, however, is false: It is, that the volume of the brain, in general, is in the direct ratio of the energy of its faculties. Observation has proved to Dr Gall, that we cannot judge of the strength of the faculties but by the developement of the separate organs which form distinct eminences in the cranium? and that a cranium perfectly round, of whatever size it may be, is never a proof of many or of great faculties.] "We do not recollect to have heard the reason assigned by Dr Gall; but in our opinion, these brains may be considered as in a state analogous to obesity; and as we do not judge of the muscular force of a man or an animal by the volume of their members, but by the developement of the muscles in particular, one would think we ought, in like manner, to judge of the strength of the faculties by the developement of the relative organs. "In the last place, the 4th principle, the most important for practice in regard to the system of Dr Gall, "We may judge of these different organs, and of their faculties by the exterior form of the cranium. "The truth of this principle is founded upon another, viz. that the conformation of the cranium depends on that of the brain; a truth generally acknowledged, and proved by the anterior part of the brain, by the impressions in the anterior part of the cranium, and by other facts. [There are skulls, it is true, in which an external protuberance protuberance of the bone corresponds to an interior one; and this irregularity, which is found sometimes as a disease, and most commonly at an advanced age, when the cerebral organs do not oppose the same resistance to the cranium, renders the practice of Dr Gall's system, in some measure, uncertain.] " Guided by these principles, Dr Gall examines the nature of the skull, compares the crania of animals and those of men analogous and different in faculties. His researches have proved to him, in a manner almost incontestable, not only the above truths, but that the faculties of animals are analogous to those of man; that what we call instinct in animals is found also in the latter, such as attachment, cunning, circumspection, courage, &c.; that the quantity of the organs fixes the difference of the genus of animals, their reciprocal proportion that of individuals; that the disposition originally given to each faculty by nature may be called forth by exercise and favourable circumstances, and sometimes by disease, but that it never can be created in the case where it has not been given by nature (c); that the accumulation of the organs takes place in a constant man ner from the hind part forwards, from the bottom to the top, in such a manner, that animals in proportion as they approach man in the quantity of their faculties have the superior and anterior part of the brain more expanded; and, in the last place, that in the most perfect animal, man, there are organs in the anterior and superior parts of the frontal bone, and of the parietals, destined for faculties which belong to them exclusively. It is under the latter point of view that the discoveries of Dr Gall agree perfectly with the theory of the facial angle, which seems still further to establish the truth of them." Most of our readers will probably be satisfied with the short view which we have now given of this fanciful and visionary system; but such as wish for a fuller exposition of it, may consult the Philosophical Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 77. from which the above is extracted. We shall only add the names of a few of the organs, which the author of the system thinks he has discovered. Organ of the tenacity of life. Organ of music. Organ of fighting. Organ of murder. Organ of cunning. Organ of arithmetic. Organ of thieving, &c. PHYSIOLOGY. 2 Divisions. Historical The object of this science is to examine and compare the phenomena of life; to discover the properties, powers, and operations of the bodies that are actuated by this principle, and to pursue the developement, progress, and decay of vital energy, from brute matter, which possesses no portion of vitality, to the most perfect animal, which seems to have it in the greatest perfection. 2. Physiology may be considered under three heads; historical, philosophical or rational, and practical physiology. ༢ 3. Historical physiology is occupied in giving a simple physiology. relation of the facts and phenomena that take place in logy. living bodies; in bringing them together, and comparing those which succeed each other without interruption during the existence of vitality. 4. It is the business of philosophical physiology to Philosophical physio- consider the nature of these phenomena, and endeavour to deduce from them some general conclusions, by which they may be explained or elucidated; to draw from them natural consequences, and unfold successively their analogies and relations; to arrange, distribute, and clas. sify them, and thus acquire sufficient data by which to Practical discover the causes which produce them. The practical part of physiology is intended to point out the application of the principles of the science to the useful purposes of life, especially to medicine and agriculture. Of these divisions the first is the most important, as, until we have acquired a pretty complete knowledge of the facts relating to living beings, and arranged these in a natural manner, it cannot be expected that we should make any great progress in explaining them, or investigating their causes. From the multitude, variety, and complex nature of these phenomena, a complete view of them is extremely difficult, and requires the united efforts of genius, dexterity, patience, and discernment. physiology. 6 Physiology is intimately related to several other de- Relations to anatomy, partments of natural knowledge. Its relation to anatomy is the most strict and natural; and indeed the knowledge of the structure of living bodies is a necessary introduction to that of their properties and functions. So close is the union between these two sciences, that it is generally thought that the study of them should go hand in hand. Certain it is, that, without physiology, anatomy is a dry and uninteresting study; while, on the other hand, physiology, unaided by anatomy, is obscure and uncertain. It is by means of anatomy that we learn the structure and organization of the animal machine; the disposition and form of its several members; the parts that concur in the composition of them; the arrangement and the connection of these: it is by means of anatomy that we know how to estimate the advantage3 of every organ must exist in embryo, if the expansion of that organ is to be afterwards called tion. Whenever the economy of living bodies indicates de- Introdse sign, and cannot result from any combination or structure of organs, it must be supposed the effect of something different from matter, and whose explanation belongs to that science which is called metaphysics, or which we might term the philosophy of the mind. By ascribing, indeed, to the glandular contents within the cranium, and to that fiction animal spirits, the motives of action, the superficial and ill-informed may have been led to an opinion that perception, memory, and imagination, are the functions of the cerebrum, the medulla oblongata, and cerebellum; that the soul is a consequence of organization; and the science which treats of it only a particular branch of physiology. But mind and its faculties are now so well understood and investigated, that this opinion can seldom prevail but where penetration is not remarkable for its acuteness, or where reflection, reading, and research, have long been confined within the limits of a narrow circle. Introduc- ges of any particular conformation; that we estimate tion. the proportion between the solid and fluid parts of the body, and the adaptation of the organs to the various uses for which they are destined. But we must remember, that the aid of anatomy in physiological researches, extends no farther than to the mechanical arrangement and relation of the several parts of the body; it teaches us nothing of its intimate composition, and much less does it inform us respecting the vital powers and mental energies displayed by the living body. The most accurate inspection of the brain will afford us no light respecting the obscure function of sensation, and the hidden operation of thought and judgment; nor will the nicest dissection of the eye, or of the tongue shew us how the former is unable to convey to us the ideas of external objects, or how the latter imparts to us the thousand varied flavours of sapid bodies. In short, we may conclude, that the more the exercise of any function depends on the structure and organization of the organs that perform it, the more capable is it of illus tration from anatomy. chemistry, 8 The science of chemistry has proved of eminent use in explaining several functions of the animal economy, which, without its assistance, would have been very imperfectly understood. The action of the air on the blood during respiration, and the digestion of food in the stomach, are found to depend chiefly on chemical opera tions; while this science has explained to us, in a most satisfactory manner, the nature, composition, and reciprocal action of the component principles of organized beings, and the nature of several changes which they undergo, both in the living and the dead state. But if we extend the application of chemistry too far, and imagine, as some of our modern chemical physiologists have done, that it is capable of explaining life, motion, and even sensation, we shall only betray our own presumption and our ignorance of vital phenomena. When the performance of any function depends on the intimate composition of its organs, or the combinations and decompositions that take place among their component principles; then, and then only, is it susceptible of chemical illustration. mechanical Mechanical philosophy is employed with advantage philosophy, in explaining some of the phenomena that take place in living beings. The strength and solidity of the bony compages; the force and direction of the muscular mo tions; the propagation, direction, and mechanical effect of light, sound, odours; the effects of the gravity and elasticity of atmospheric air, and a few other circumstances, may be submitted to calculation, and illustrated on physical principles: but the laws of mechanical and of vital action are, in general, so different, and even the most mechanical phenomena of living beings are often so modified and counteracted by the agency of the vital powers, that, on the whole, we must consider general physics as one of the least useful auxiliaries of physiological researches. metaphysics, Of all the branches of physical science, physiology certainly makes the nearest approach to the region of metaphysics; but yet there is a difference between these, though it may not be very easy to point out the precise line of termination. Physiology, as already defined, be ing that science which has for its object the organical economy of living bodies, the word organical, we think, here should mark the distinction. ,5 Some metaphysical physiologists contend, that every living system of organs supposes mind, and indeed in the study of such systems the physiologist must often meet with many phenomena that are less singular than simple perception, and yet for which he cannot account by any knowledge he possesses of organic powers. This truth we partly acknowledge, when, like ancient Athens erecting her altars to unknown gods, we retreat to those asylums of ignorance, the vis insita, the vis nervea, the vis vitalis, the vis medicatrix, and a number of others of the same kind. 10 Physiology, in the general sense in which we have and natural defined it, is a science that investigates the nature and history. the functions of all living beings. It is, therefore, reasonable to suppose that it must have an intimate connection with natural history, and in fact, it is to this branch of physics that it has been perhaps more indebted than to any other. A comparative view of the various gradations among organized beings has taught us to appre ciate the value of the several functions that characterise vitality, and has shewn us, that in proportion as the structure is more complex, the functions are more numerous, and more complete. Repeated observations, and multiplied experiments on various tribes of animated nature have cleared up many doubtful and obscure phenomena in the economy of man, and a continuation of this truly philosophical method of research promises to place physiology on the solid basis of experience, and enable us to reason, where only we can reason with safety, by a deduction from facts. The more numerous these facts, and the more complete their arrangement, the more extensive and the more secure will be the foundation which they afford for physiological conclusions. In short, (to use the language of Dumas, who has illustrated this relation at great length)," the phy siologist who is conversant with natural history, is so much the better fortified against uncertain opinions, inasmuch as he has more fully observed the operations of nature in connection and in detail. An hypothesis which to others appears perfectly adequate to the object in view, is not convincing to him. He rises above the particular object to which it is accommodated, in order to appreciate its value; and it is often among circumstances which are foreign to the original subject, that he seeks for exceptions or contradictions that overturn the bypothesis. Every thing that may serve to complete the knowledge tion. Introduc- knowledge of the animal economy enters into his plan; and as the nature of man is so much the less incomprehensible as we employ a greater number of comparative *Dumas ideas in its exposition, it is doubtless in the power of de Physio- natural history to elucidate that subject, by revealing a logie, tom.i. multitude of unknown relations between man and those p. 23 1. beings which resemble or which differ from him *." Principes gy. 11 The importance and utility of physiology will scarceImportance and utility ly be questioned, and need therefore but little illustraof physiolo- tion. To all who desire to become acquainted with the operations that take place in the animal economy, or to trace the progress of vegetation, and examine the various changes produced on the seed or bud from the action of air, heat, and moisture, (and what studies can be more deserving of a rational and an enlightened mind?) physiology must afford the most interesting subjects of contemplation. To the anatomist and the botanist, it relieves the tedium of dry description and severe classification; to the physician it holds out the surest lights to direct his researches into the circumstances that are favourable to life and health, into the nature and phenomena of death, and of course, the means of avoiding or delaying its attack; to the agriculturist it furnishes some of the most certain principles to direct him (with the aid of chemistry) in the choice of soils and the application of manures; while to the genuine naturalist, no subject presents such a field of amusement and instruction. When it shall have been rendered as complete as the state of contemporary science will allow, it will exhibit the general result of all those experiments and observations that have purposely been made to illustrate the phenomena of animated matter, or have accidentally contributed to that illustration; and when it shall reach that summit of perfection to which the efforts of genius may carry it, it may diffuse a light, of which at the present day we can form no just or adequate conception. On many occasions it may introduce order for confusion, certainty for doubt; and may establish science, in various departments that are now occupied by fancy and conjecture. After having pointed out the nature, divisions, relations, and utility of physiology, it may not be improper to make a few remarks on the best methods of pursuing the study of it, and the works that are most worthy of a perusal. Methods of From what has been said of the relations between studying physiology and other sciences, it will be inferred that physiology, the student of our present subject should come prepared with a moderate share of knowledge in anatomy, both human and comparative, of chemistry, of mechanical philosophy, especially dynamics, optics, pneumatics, and acoustics; and natural history, especially zoology and botany. At least the rudiments of these branches should be well understood, and the student will then have laid a foundation on which to raise a firm and durable superstructure. He has now to make himself acquainted with what is already known; and in this inquiry it is of much consequence that he should select those works that embrace the whole subject, without being too diffuse on the one hand or too brief and general on the other. The Elementa Physiologia of Haller contains a mass of information that will ever render it valuable as a book of reference, though it will scarcely at the present day be studied as a system of physiology. His Prima Lincæ tion. Physiologia, though first written, is chiefly a com- Introducpendium of the larger work, and is better adapted to the general student, though, from its not containing the later discoveries in the science, it is far from complete. The Institutiones Physiologia of Blumenbach is a useful work, though it has now given place to the later and more accurate publications of Cuvier and Dumas. The Anatomie Comparée of the former writer contains an excellent digest of comparative physiology, and the preliminary observations prefixed to the anatomical details contained in this work, may be read with considerable advantage. Probably, however, the Principes de Physiologie of Damas is the most perfect and scientific modern production that has appeared on the subject. We cannot say so much of the Elements of Physiology lately published by Richerand, and translated into English by Mr Kerrison; for although it contains considerable information, and a great display of reading, and even of original observation and experiment, it is neither scientific nor always very accurate. The works of Bichat, especially his Anatomie Generale, Anatomie Descriptive, and his Recherches Physiologiques sur la Vie et la Mort, abound with excellent physiological remarks, and, allowing for the great extent to which he has carried some peculiar doctrines, are among the best that have appeared on the animal economy. In our own country, we have many valuable treatises and papers on different parts of physiology, and the names of Hunter, Monro, Home, Cooper, Abernethy, Carlisle, Sanders, Barclay, Jones, and many others, will ever reflect honour on the country and on the age in which they lived. We can scarcely, however, point out a complete work in our language on the general subject of physiology, though we doubt not that many will be disposed to consider the Zoonomia of Dr Darwin as entitled to that appellation. We allow that this is a stupendous monument of the genius and industry of its author, and it contains an ample store of valuable facts, which, if they could be divested of the hypothesis with which they are so much blended, would be extremely useful to the cause of physiological science. At present many of them tend to mislead, by a shew of metaphysical acuteness, and by the new sense in which several terms are employed. Another of Dr Darwin's works,.. not less valuable, in a physiological point of view, is his Phytologia, in which he treats of the economy of vegetation with ability and success. 13 physiology He who is desirous of advancing and improving the Means of science of physiology, must, in the first place, have re-advancing course to a patient, and, as far as may be, an accurate and imobservation of the phenomena that take place in or-proving ganized beings; but the multitude, the variety, and complicated nature of these phenomena, place in his way obstacles that it is difficult to surmount. It is only through time, and patience, and assiduity, that he can attain his object; and it requires considerable dexterity and acuteness to detect the appearances under which these phenomena sometimes present themselves, to pierce through the obscurity in which they are often involved, and to avoid, in a route so uncertain, both the illusions of sense and the errors of genius. The living body has properties peculiar to itself, while it also possesses others that are common to it with brute matter. The pheno- mena by which it manifests these two orders of proper ties, are therefore of two kinds, as they relate particu larly |