materials. In converting these products and others further into dress, 1,205,747 persons are employed, namely, 399,166 males and 806,581 females. Great numbers in the domestic class are partially employed in making, mending, and washing dresses. The number of persons who are employed on a product does. not bear any constant proportion to its quantities; thus, by the introduction of machinery, the number of weavers is reduced, while the amount of cloth is increased enormously: and generally, the greatest increase of artizans since 1851 is in trades to which machinery has not yet been successfully applied, as in the building trades; but it sometimes happens, as in the cotton manufacture, that the increase of hands is caused by the application of machinery, which reduces the price of products so much as to place them within the reach of innumerable customers. We may now notice the numbers returned in 1851 and 1861 under different branches of textile manufacture :- Woollen cloth manufacture, 122,256 and 130,034 per

sons;

worsted manufacture, 102,714 and 79,242; silk manufacture, 111,940 and 101,678; cotton manufacture, 371,777 and 456,646; calico or cotton printers, 12,098 and 12,556; calico dyers, 3,278 and 4,772; flax and linen manufacturers, 26,325 and 22,050. Among persons in the order of dress the hairdressers remained nearly stationary, 11,220 and 11,064; hatters, 15,957 and 13,814; straw hat and bonnet makers, 20,393 and 18,176; tailors, 182,715 and 136,320; milliners and dressmakers, 234,712 and 287,101; shoemakers, 240,252 and 250,581. 430,220 persons worked or dealt in food and drinks, 347,614 males, and 82,606 females. The numbers were nearly equally distributed among the sub-orders,-that dealing in animal food, 141,185; that dealing in vegetable food, 136,354; and that trading in drinks and stimulants, 152,681. In the years 1851 and 1861 the cowkeepers and milksellers amounted to 14,386 and 17,694; the butchers to 62,185 and 68,114; fishmongers, 9,084 and 11,305; bakers, 51,738 and 54,140; maltsters (masters and men), 10,566 and 10,677; brewers (masters and men), 17,880 and 20,352; grocers and tea-dealers, 71,658 and 93,483.

12,040 persons are working in grease, gut, bone, horn, ivory, and whalebone, of whom the

majority are soap-boilers, tallow-chandlers, and comb-makers. The soap-boilers in 1851 and 1861 were 1,216 and 1,623; tallow-chandlers, 4,949 and 4,686; and the comb-makers, 2,038 and 1,478. The progress of civilization has been greatly promoted by these trades; for cleanliness and artificial light distinguish the English and other civilized nations from barbarians, immersed in dirt and darkness. The decrease of the tallow-chandlers is counterbalanced by the rise of a gas-service, and combs are now often made of metal. Skins, feathers, and quills furnish employment for 29,756 persons, of whom 28,360 are males, 1,396 are females. The leather-manufacture occupies the majority; the numbers of curriers and tanners in 1851 and 1861 were 19,571 and 21,493. 14,296 persons were working in hair and bristles; 9,711 men and 4,585 women. In 1851 and 1861 there were 2,470 and 3,002 persons engaged in the hair and bristle manufacture; 9,393 and 11,178 persons were engaged in making and selling brushes and brooms. There were 144,184 persons, chiefly males, working and dealing in vegetable substances, exclusive of those used as food; 14,659 in gums and resins, 79,066 in wood, 2,352 in bark, 17,302 in cane, rush, and straw, and 30,805 in paper. Notwithstanding the introduction of saw-mills, sawyers increased slightly in ten years from 30,552 to 31,647; coopers were at the two Censuses 16,029 and 17,821; cork-cutters, 1,753 and 2,257; basket makers, 8,016 and 8,899; rag gatherers and dealers, 2,851 and 3,462; paper makers, 10,809 and 13,357. The number of women employed in paper making at the last Census was 5,611, and the number of men 7,746.

We now come to the great order of workers in minerals, in which 1,012,997 persons are engaged. Few women work in this laborious field, for 956,684 of the number are males. The first sub-order of miners consists of 330,352 men, of whom 248,284 are connected with coalpits as owners, inspectors, clerks, or colliers; 32,041 are tin or copper-miners; 18,552 are lead-miners; 20,626 are ironminers; 7,502 are indefinitely described as miners; 2,502 are described as secretaries and servants of mining companies. Coal-miners or colliers in the last ten years increased from 183,389 to 246,613; copper and tin-miners

from 31,360 to 32,041. The export of coal and the import of copper partly account for the discrepancy, and for the increase of the numbers employed in the copper and tin manufactures from 10,637 to 15,040. The number of coal-heavers was 15,540 in 1851, and 17,410 in 1861, when the coal-merchants and dealers were 11,201 and 12,266, and coke-burners or dealers 2,110 and 3,075. The production of gas occupies more persons every year; gasmeter, &c. makers at the two Censuses were 136 and 314; the gas-fitters 2,217 and 5,469; persons in the gas-works service 4,718 and 8,672. Upon work in coal and its immediate products, coke and gas, nearly 800,000 persons were employed in 1861. Women are still employed at coal works, chiefly at the pit's mouth; their number was 3,260 and 3,763 in 1851 and 1861. In stone and clay, 144,778 persons were employed, of whom 142,170 were males, including 22,243 stone quarriers, quarry agents and owners, 4,679 stone agents, merchants, and cutters, 9,360 slate-quarriers, 5,507 limestone and lime workers, 82 stone dredgers and diggers, 139 coprolite diggers and dealers, and 1,099 plaster and cement manufacturers or dealers, are indications of peculiar trades. Of clay labourers in 1851 and 1861 there were 1,427 and 2,912; of brickmakers 29,019 and 39,620; thus showing an increased demand for the building materials which are not produced by machinery. Of railway labourers, navvies, excavators, and platelayers, the number was 34,618 and 43,008; of road surveyors, contractors, and labourers, 8,611 and 10,495; the increase being considerable among those employed both on the iron and stone ways of the nation. the not very agreeable, but of the very important group of scavengers and nightmen, we had 1,065 and 1,374 at the two Censuses. 1,203 and 1,852 women were returned as brickmakers; hence the number of women so employed is increasing. A certain number also work in clay. 47,144 persons are working in earthenware; 32,918 males and 14,163 females. The persons employed in this important manufacture were 34,341 and 38,072 in 1851 and 1861, when the dealers and importers of earthenware and glass were 4,605 and 4,965. The makers of tobacco pipes, and of drainage and other pipes, are sometimes

Of

apparently confounded under the common name of pipe-makers; but as far as could be ascertained, the number of tobacco-pipe makers was 3,637 at the last and 8,882 at the previous Census. 15,603 persons work in glass, including only 1,392 women. We see here the effects of the liberation of the manufacture from the excise duty; the numbers engaged in the glass manufacture in 1851 and 1861 were 11,282 and 15,046. In saltworks 1,412 and 2,120 persons were employed at the two Censuses; so that the amount of labour which is expended in producing this important article is not considerable, but is increasing. The addition of merchants and dealers makes the number 2,527. Water is an article of greater necessity than salt, and although it is bountifully distributed in this country by the Author of Nature, its supply in a state of purity demands labour and skill. The water of nearly all our wells in towns and the water of many wells in the country is impure. It is, therefore, gratifying to observe, that since 1851 the men in the waterworks' service have increased from 864 to 1,506 in 1861, when we had also 523 well-sinkers, 77 water-carriers and dealers, 23 ice-makers, merchants, or dealers. Gold, silver, and precious stones are imported; so the numbers employed in finding and getting them do not figure in our accounts; the workers here were 21,576 in 1861. The numbers are increasing in 1851 and 1861 we had 11,391 and 16,247 goldsmiths, silversmiths, jewellers, and lapidaries, the latter number including 1,733 women, chiefly young persons. 298 men and 858 women are guard-chain makers. 9,733 persons, exclusive of miners, worked in copper in 1861, including 3,827 men and 3,961 women in copper manufactures. 1,882 men and 11 women are coppersmiths. The numbers of persons in the copper manufacture rose from 6,558 to 7,788 in ten years. On tin and quicksilver 22,878 persons were employed; 18,434 males and 4,444 females. In the tin manufacture 3,266 men and 3,986 women were employed; as tin-workers and tinkers 7,720 men and 121 women; as tinplate workers 7,278 men and only 282 women. There are 81 men and 22 women engaged on tinfoil. The numbers in the tin manufacture were 4,079 and 7,252, in tin-plate working 8,473 and 7,560, at the two Censuses. The

:

40,909 of them are in London, and the rest are distributed all over England. The diplomatic corps stands among the subjects of foreign States first in importance, but its numbers are not considerable. The merchant seamen

amount to 15,561, chiefly from Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and Germany, the descendants of the same races as invaded England. Of the subjects of France, 12,989 are reckoned, including teachers of languages, governesses, cooks, servants, merchants, clerks, seamen (1,532), tailors, bootmakers, dressmakers, and smaller numbers in a great variety of occupations. Italy sends us musicians, artists, priests, figure and image makers, looking-glass makers, and merchants. 667 Italian seamen were in our ports. Germany, with Austria and Prussia, besides seamen (4,624), supplies us with a large number of musicians, teachers of the German language, servants, merchants, factors, and commercial clerks, watch and clock makers, (965), engine and machine makers, tailors, shoemakers; with many bakers, and a large colony of sugar refiners (1,345). The cities, and especially the metropolis, are the principal seats of foreign residents. London, in 1851, contained 30,057 persons born in foreign parts; and in 1861 it contained 48,390 foreigners by birth.

Liverpool at the two Censuses contained 4,167 and 4,412 foreigners; Manchester and Salford, 2,035 and 3,086 persons born in foreign parts. Birmingham, Hull, and Brighton were the only other towns that contained more than 1,000 foreigners. Of 100 foreigners residing in England, 36 were born in Germany, Austria, and Prussia, 16 in France, 9 in the United States of America, and 39 in all the other States of the world. 18,423 persons in England were born in the islands of the British seas. 601,634 persons in England were born in Ireland, of whom nearly 5 in 6, or 497,116, comprising 244,840 men and 252,276 women, were 20 years of age and upwards. The 104,518 under 20 years of age comprised rather more boys than girls, and many of them were the children of the adults. The distribution of the Irish immigrants over England is shown in the tables; thus, 245,933 of them are in Lancashire and Cheshire, 124,646 in the metropolitan counties-Middlesex, Surrey, and Kent-50,664 in Yorkshire, and 42,753

in Durham and Northumberland. Wherever employment is active the Irish flock, and they abound in the large towns-London, Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Bradford, and Sheffield-generally occupying particular streets and quarters. 169,202 persons in England were born in Scotland, of whom 42,656 were in Lancashire and Cheshire, and 42,226 were in the metropolitan counties. Half of the Scottish population in England were in these five counties-18,461 resided in Northumberland, 9,025 in Cumberland over the border, 13,621 in Durham, 10,376 in Yorkshire, and 4,419 in Hampshire. A certain number of Scotchmen are scattered over all the other counties. There is not only a constant movement of parts of the population to and from other countries and England, but there is a constant migration from one part of England to another. The migration of the English about their own country is traced in the series of tables displaying the birth-places of the inhabitants of each county. It may be illustrated by the instances of London and of the northwestern counties, Lancashire and Cheshire.

London is the metropolis of the empire, and thither the representatives of other nations, of the colonies, and of Scotland and Ireland, resort; but it is chiefly the field in which the populations of the several counties of England find scope for their talents and their industry. The majority of its inhabitants are, it is true, indigenous, for 1,741,177 were born within its limits; but of the 1,062,812 who were born elsewhere, 852,994 were born in the extrametropolitan counties and parts of counties of England and Wales. 62 in 100 of the inhabitants were born in London, 19 in the counties of the three divisions around London, 7 in the south-western and the west midland counties, 4 in the north midland and all the northern counties. In 100 inhabitants little more than 1 were natives of Scotland, nearly 4 (8-8) were natives of Ireland, 5 were natives of British colonies, 1 were natives of foreign parts. It is evident that these proportions do not show the tendency of the various populations to send emigrants to London; for to determine this relative tendency the numbers of the population from which the emigrants come must be taken into account. Thus the islands in the British seas sent 3,429 of their natives to Lon

don, and Ireland sent 106,877; but as the population of the islands is 145,674, and the population of Ireland is 5,850,309, it follows that the islands send proportionally more natives to London than Ireland contributes. To 1,000 people in the islands there are 24 natives of those islands in London; while to a population of 1,000 in Ireland there are 18 Irishmen in London. The Table 128 will correct some popular errors. Thus it will be noticed that the tendency of the Scotch to go to London is less than the tendency of the people of any other parts of Great Britain, except Lancashire and Cheshire. Taking 1,000 as the population basis, there are to 1,000 people in Scotland nearly 12 Scotchmen in London; to 1,000 people in Yorkshire, 13 Yorkshiremen in London; to 1,000 people in Wales and Monmouthshire, 15 of Welsh birth in London; to 1,000 people in the northern counties, 16 northern men by birth in London. The counties of Lancashire and Cheshire are themselves centres of attraction, to which the population of other counties flow; but to 1,000 of their population there were 8 natives of those counties in London.

From the counties between the Wash and the Humber, there is a small but constant stream of emigrants to London; for Lincoln, Leicester, Derby, and Nottingham have to 1,000 inhabitants 26 of their natives in London; while the counties around the Severn have the somewhat larger proportion of 31 natives in London to 1,000 inhabitants. The stream to London from the south grows larger, and the counties of Cornwall, Devon, Somerset, Dorset, and Wilts send 128,442 of their natives to be enumerated in London,-70 natives to every 1,000 of the inhabitants of these south-western counties. The influx of the inhabitants of counties immediately about London rises to still higher proportions, and to 1,000 inhabitants, the south-midland counties had 114 natives, the south-eastern counties 123 natives, the eastern counties 133 natives resident in London. Proximity to the metropolis, and the absence of manufactures at home, first drew the natives of these counties to London, and the migration continues to flow there in unabated force. Labourers, artizans, of various kinds, and the professional classes, go to London probably in less unequal proportions from the various counties. It naturally happens that

the children enumerated in London were nearly all born within its limits, and of 1,186,059 young people under the age of 20, only 196,263 were born elsewhere. Of the adults of the age of 20 and upwards, 866,549 were born out of London, and only 751,381 were natives of the soil. The proportion of adult immigrants to natives was 115 to 100, or rather less than 7 to 6. The men of the age of 20 and upwards who were not natives were in the proportion of 121 to 100 natives; the women in the proportion of 111 to 100.

2,061,093 persons in England were born in London, and the distribution of the 319,916 natives of London who were in other countries is shown in Table 127. The attraction between London and the other divisions is not necessarily reciprocal, but the proportion of Londoners bears a certain proportion to the distance of the counties from the metropolis.

The two counties round the Mersey and on the Irish Sea were inhabitated by 865,791 people at the beginning of this century, while at the last Census their inhabitants amounted to 2,934,868, of whom 2,264,618 were born on the soil, and only 670,250 were strangers by birth, comprising 245,933 natives of Ireland, 42,656 natives of Scotland, 6,348 natives of the Isle of Man and the other islands of the British seas, 102,728 natives of the contiguous county of York, 191,972 natives of the other northern divisions, and only 61,080 natives of London and all the eastern, southern, and southeastern counties. Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk only sent 6,992 natives to Lancashire and Cheshire, while they sent 156,592 to London. The tendency of the South-Saxon population to emigrate to the North is excessively small; to 1,000 of their inhabitants none of their divisions had more than 5 or 8 natives in Lancashire and Cheshire. Yorkshire is intimately associated with Lancashire and Cheshire by trade and by vicinity, so to 1,000 inhabitants it had 51 natives in those two counties; the islands in the British Seas and Ireland stand next in order, 44 and 42; Wales (39), the Northern counties (35), the North Midland counties (88), and the West Midland counties (25) follow with decreasing proportions of representatives. Scotland had only 14 in this division to 1,000 at home. The population of Scotland has evidently a large field of employment at home,