66 According to this imperfect survey, therefore, in the numerous places "of education here named, about 6,800 children of both sexes in the "residence are brought up at the expence of government. The sums set down amount to 754,335 roubles per annum." VOL. IV. SH POLAND. POLAND. CONSTITUTION AND STATE OF PROPERTY. POLAND being no longer an independent state, we are chiefly interested in knowing the causes of its decline and final dissolution.-Its history exemplifies in a very striking manner the fatal effects produced by a form of government not suited to the existing state of society. The feudal system, which was for ages the prevailing form of government in Europe, was not ill-calculated for the state of society then existing; when an elective chief led his barbarous hordes to the field of battle, or upon their marauding expeditions, whilst their slaves were left to cultivate the land under the inspection of those who were not able to bear arms; and when comparatively few of the useful arts were deemed essential to the comforts of life.-But when other governments were gradually accommodated to the circumstances of the age, the evils arising from an elective sovereign, a haughty, factious, and turbulent nobility, and a slavish peasantry at the absolute disposal of their lords, were manifested in many instances, and, among others, in the comparative weakness of the state. Had the Poles been immovably attached to this system, their present doom would not, perhaps, have been pitiable; as incorporation with the subjects of the partitioning powers was a less evil than continual dissension among themselves, oppression from their neighbours, and extreme poverty in the midst of a country naturally the most fruitful of any in Europe. On the contrary the enlightened and disinterested part of the nation were perfectly sensible of the defects of the old system, and had actually established a new constitution upon principles which promised to remove remove the causes of their misery and dependence and lay the foundation of prosperity. Unfortunately, their salutary measures for this purpose were taken too late. Disunion in the nation, and the want of strength and resources in the government, prepared them, as we have already seen, to become a prey to the villainous designs of a confederacy which had been long seeking a pretext to seize on the Polish territories. If we attend to the political circumstances of the kingdom, we shall not be surprised that, with all the natural advantages which it possessed, it should have fallen into that deplorable state of debility which led to its dissolution. The population was divided into nobles, clergy, citizens, and peasants. -Nearly all the landed property was in the hands of the two first of these classes. The burghers or citizens were deprived of the privilege of sending representatives to the diet, and were not suffered even to possess land, except within a small distance of their towns. This reduced them to so poor and disreputable a state, that the government was constrained to permit the Jews to settle in Poland, to engross the whole trade of the country, and the management of all pecuniary transactions.*—The peasants are all serfs, or slaves: and the value of an estate, we are told by Mr. Coxe, is not "estimated so much from its extent, as from the number of "its peasants, who are transferred from one master to another like so many head of cattle."-Except such as were settled on the royal demesnes, these were at the absolute disposal of their master, who was only punishable by a fine, if he killed a slave, till the year 1768, when such a murder was made a capital crime." But we may easily judge of the difficulty of enforcing such a law. The nobles were very numerous; consisting of all who possessed a freehold estate, or who could prove their descent from ancestors formerly possessing a freehold, following no trade or commerce, and at liberty to choose the place of their habitation. * The "According to the last capitation," says Mr. Coxe, "there were 166,871 Jews in "Poland, exclusive of Lithuania, who paid an annual poll-tax."-Travels into Poland, c. 1. 153. 3 Coxe. 1. 139. 141. 153. Idem. 1. 142. 46. C Idem. 130. 32. The generality of these were very poor and venal:* and those who had large property were luxurious without refinement.-Dumouriez, whom we have seen employed among them in 1770, thus describes their chiefs. Their manners are Asiatic. Astonishing luxury, absurd expence, enter"tainments terminating in excess, gaming and dancing, are their chief "occupations." Men of reflection among the Poles themselves were sensible of the absolute necessity of a thorough reform in the system, to avert the impending ruin of the state; and it was by the efforts of such patriots that the revolution of 1791 was accomplished. "If you knew the confusion and "anarchy of our constitution," says a person, well versed in the laws of his country, to Mr. Coxe, "you would be surprised at nothing: many grievances necessarily exist even in the best regulated states: what then "must be the case in ours, which of all governments is the most de"testable." If we consider the necessary result of these circumstances in the Polish nation, and the conduct of the European powers towards them, we cannot be surprised that, with a population of 14,000,000 inhabitants before the first partition, and of 9,000,000 over an extent of 160,800 square miles after that event, they should have been finally subdued by the partitioning powers. We cannot, however, but regret that the patriots had not been enabled to make trial of a rational constitution for their restoration, f AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AND MANUFACTURES. Poland has, perhaps, a greater proportion of land capable of cultivation and inviting the hand of industry for its improvement, than any country in Europe. But the national circumstances, aggravated by internal distraction * "The name of Poland still remains," said a Pole to Mr. Coxe, "but the nation no "longer exists: an universal corruption and venality pervades all ranks of people. Many of the "first nobility do not blush to receive pensions from foreign courts: one professes himself publicly an Austrian, a second a Prussian, a third a Frenchman, and a fourth a Russian."Travels into Poland, &c. 1. 130. 46 tion and foreign war, have been ruinous to agriculture during the last period of its history. We may judge of the state of trade from the following facts from Zimmermann. "The circulating specie is valued at only thirteen millions of "German dollars; and interest is still as high as from seven to ten per "cent. There are few manufactures in the kingdom, excepting those at "Grodno."-" The exports are corn, hemp, flax, horses, cattle (about "100,000 oxen every year) peltry, timber, metals, manna, wax, honey, "and some other small articles: the value of these exports in 1777 "amounted to thirty millions of dollars: the imports, consisting chiefly in "wine, cloth, silk, hardware, gold, silver, East and West India goods, were "supposed to amount to not less than forty-seven millions of dollars." We ought to do honour to the efforts made by the last sovereign of this unhappy country, Stanislaus Augustus, to contribute to the prosperity of his people, amidst scenes of distraction and external oppression which defeated his benevolent and patriotic purpose.-In 1776 he established manufactories near Grodno, for cloth and camlets, linen and cottons, silk stuffs, embroidery, silk stockings, hats, lace, fire arms, needles, cards, bleaching wax, and carriages, which altogether afforded employment for 3,000 persons. h B Zimmermann. Coxe. 1. 285. TURKEY. |