contributions to the test of experience, bears a lamentably small proportion to the number that have become insolvent. In the early stages of such institutions the claims upon their funds are few. They have usually started with the great mass of their members in the prime of life, and in robust health; so that, for a while, nearly all their receipts have appeared to be profits: it is only when advancing age, increased sickness or permanent infirmity, together with accelerated claims for funeral money, press heavily on the funds, that it is discovered the original contributions have been inadequate to provide for the benefits promised to the members; and, when insolvency shews itself, the ruin produced by it to the elder members comes at a time when their vigour is for ever gone, and they are no longer capable of realizing by their labour the means of beginning anew to make that provision for their helpless age, which, to their credit, they had, for the best proportion of their lives, been honourably striving to effect. There is scarcely a village in England where may not be found many unfortunate instances of what is here asserted; and if, with so many discouraging facts continually presented to them, men still, as they do, evince a strong desire to form themselves into Friendly Societies, the disposition to so laudable a foresight must be unusually powerful, and surely well deserves the encouragement which the legislature now wisely extends to such societies, and also merits the best assistance that experience can offer, to direct them to the safe and proper attainment of their object.

That there are to be found among the working classes a large number of dishonourable exceptions to the foresight alluded to, is true persons whose bad characters prevent their being employed in those labours which are the best remunerated, or whose wasteful and dissolute habits prevent their saving from month to month the means of making the most moderate contributions to the funds of Friendly Societies: but these exceptions would probably be reduced to an insignificant number, if the instances of old men living happily and in comfort, on an allowance from some well-founded Friendly Society, were as frequent as the existing instances are of disappointed trust placed in ill-founded and ill- . managed institutions, that have very improperly borne the name of Friendly Societies; but which might often more appropriately be termed societies for the encouragement of intoxication.

The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, under whose superintendence these observations are published, is desirous of aiding, as far as the present state of knowledge on the subject will allow it to do so, Friendly Societies in establishing themselves on such bases as may best promise to attain the object sought; and although the result of the following investigations should show that the contributions requisite to provide for particular benefits ought, in some cases, to be larger than what have been heretofore relied on; the society feel persuaded the good sense of that class of persons to whom this work is particularly addressed, will point out that the first object to be desired is security. In fact, if Friendly Societies were to be established without a well-grounded hope that the benefits promised would be obtained, evil and not good would be the result; since any such institutions would only serve to multiply cases of disappointment; to which the idle and wicked might plausibly point as so many living proofs, that forethought and frugality had not produced any ultimate good to those who had sacrificed some of the comforts of early life, however trifling, with the laudable hope of being recompensed in old age.

HISTORY OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

THE advantages of associations, similar in their nature to Friendly Societies, seem to have been appreciated at a very early period; and it is more than probable that associations which had for their object to provide for the necessities of the few, by the contributions of the many, were numerous long prior to the Norman Conquest, in the year 1066, although the want of learning and the great scarcity of authors at that period have prevented the existence of many such institutions being recorded.

Hicks, in his Thesaurus, mentions some societies of the nature alluded to, the rules of which, in the original Saxon, are still preserved. One was established at Cambridge among noblemen and gentlemen, and the following is a translation of its rules. These are in themselves curious, and they show how nearly in principle the institutions assimilated to the modern Friendly Society.

The rules are as follow:

"In this writing is contained an account of an institution

established by the members of the society (gilde) of noblemen in Cambridge.

"1. It is ordained, that all the members shall swear, by the Holy Reliques*, that they will be faithful to each of their fellow members, as well in religious as in worldly matters, and that (in all disputes) they will always take part with him that has justice on his side.

"When any member shall die he shall be carried by the whole society to whatever place of interment he shall have chosen; and whoever shall not come to assist in bearing him shall forfeit a sextarium of honey; the society making up the rest of the expense, and furnishing each his quota towards the funeral entertainment; and also twopence for charitable purposes; out of which as much as is meet and convenient is to be bestowed upon the church of St. Etheldred.

"When any member shall stand in need of assistance from his fellow-members, notice thereof shall be given to the Reeve, or Warden †, who dwells the nearest to that member, unless that member be his immediate neighbour: and the Warden, if he neglect giving him relief, shall forfeit one pound. In like manner, if the president of the society shall neglect coming to his assistance, he shall forfeit one pound §, unless he be detained either by the business of his lord or by sickness.

"If any one shall take away the life of a member, his reparatory fine shall not exceed eight pounds; but if he obstinately refuse to make reparation, then shall he be prosecuted || by and at the expense of the whole society; and if any individual undertake the prosecution, then each of the rest shall bear an equal share of the expenses. If, however, a member who is poor kill any one, and compensation must be made, then, if the deceased was worth 1200 shillings ¶, each member of the society shall con*Probably of their tutelar saint. Every gild was denominated from some favorite saint or festival, as St. George's Gild, Trinity Gild, Holy Cross Gild, &c.

† Officers (it is supposed) of the society, subordinate to the president. Because in this case the Warden might be presumed to be acquainted (without notice) that violence was offered to his next neighbour.

§ An Anglo-Saxon pound contained as much silver as is now coined into about 31. 1s. 11d. sterling.

These prosecutions, it is probable, were literally carried on by force and arms. A Saxon shilling differed little in value from the same coin in modern times ;it usually, although not always, contained four Saxon pennies.

tribute half a mark*; but if the deceased was a hind, each member shall contribute two oræ +; if a Welchman, only one. If any member shall take away the life of another member, he shall make reparation to the relations of the deceased, and besides make atonement for his fellow-member by a fine of eight pounds, or lose his right of fellowship in the society. And if any member, except only in the presence of the king, or a bishop, or an alderman, shall eat or drink with him who has taken away the life of his fellow-member, he shall forfeit one pound, unless he can prove, by the evidence of two witnesses upon oath, that he did not know the person.

If any member shall treat another member in an abusive manner, or call him names‡, he shall forfeit a quart of honey; and if he be abusive to any other person who is not a member, he shall likewise forfeit a quart of honey §, unless he can clear himself by the evidence of two witnesses upon oath.

"If any knight (that is, a servant at arms) shall draw his sword, his lord shall forfeit one pound, which he may, by every possible means, recover from the offender, and which the whole society shall assist him in the recovery of. And if one knight shall wound another, the wounded person's lord, in concert with the whole society, shall avenge the wrong, and prosecute the offender to death.

"A knight for waylaying a man shall forfeit a sextarium of honey; and if he set any trap or snare for him, the penalty shall be the same.

"If any member, being at a distance from home, shall die, or

* A mark was two-thirds of a Saxon pound, and equal in weight of silver to about 27. 1s. 3d. of our present silver coinage.

† An ora was the eighth part of a mark, and nearly equal in weight to about 5s. 2d. of our present silver coinage.

So in the Weavers' Company at Newcastle, a member was fined 6s. 8d. for calling a brother "Scot," or "Mansworn."

Honey was an article that would keep, and therefore very proper for a fine: it was probably used for metheglin, or in some other way for the feasts of the society. In one of the fraternities at Newcastle, it was ordered that the corpse of every brother who during his lifetime had paid his mouth-pence should be preceded to church, at his burial, by the common lights of the society: funeral honours were in like manner paid to members' wives. The wax and oil which were given by new members on their admission were, no doubt, for the use of the society in these and other processions.

fall sick, his fellow-members shall send to fetch him, either alive or dead, to whatever place he may have wished, or be liable to the stated penalty; but if a member shall die at home, every member who shall not go to fetch his corpse, and every member who shall absent himself from his obsequies, shall forfeit a sextarium of honey."

The rules of another society, noticed by Hicks, are as follow: "This meeting is held in the city of Exeter, for the sake of God and our own souls, that we may make such ordinances as tend to our welfare and security, as well in this life as in that future state we wish to enjoy in the presence of God our Judge. Being therefore here assembled together, we have decreed— ·

"That three stated meetings shall be held every year,-the first on the festival of St. Michael the Archangel; the second on the festival of St. Mary next following the winter solstice; and the third on the festival of All Saints, which is celebrated after Easter.

"That at each meeting every member shall contribute two sextaria of barley-meal *, and every knight one, together with his quota of honey.

"That at each of these meetings a priest shall sing two masses -the one for the living, the other for the departed members; every lay-brother shall likewise sing two psalms-the one for the living, and the other for departed members. Every one shall, moreover, in his turn, procure six masses and six psalms to be sung at his own proper expense.

That when any member is about to go abroad, each of his fellow-members shall contribute five pence; and if any member's house should have been burnt, one penny †.

"That if any one should neglect the stated times of meeting, for the first neglect he shall be at the expense of three masses; for the second, of five; and if, after being warned of the consequence, he shall absent himself a third time, he shall not be excused, unless he has been hindered, either by sickness, or by the business of his lord.

"That if any one should by chance neglect the stated time of meeting, his quota of regular contribution should be doubled.

*Mealter (i. e. of meal) Hicks translates by his Latin word polenta.

The Saxon penny was the 29th part of an ora, or about 3d. of our present money.