dam, and the region of swamps through which the river flows down is not adapted for canalization. The most likely source for an additional supply he finds in Lake Tsana, at the head of the Blue Nile, but this is in Abyssinia, and can not be utilized without the consent of the Emperor Menelek. The navigation of the Blue Nile would at the same time be improved. The water-supply could be supplemented by utilizing also the water of the upper Nile that is wasted in swamps, either by embanking the Bahr el Gebel or by using the Bahr el Zeraf as an additional channel for the summer supply. If such a work is ever carried out a large part of the Soudan can be irrigated. Meanwhile the Egyptian Government intends to employ its financial resources in the construction of a railroad between the Nile valley and the Red Sea as an outlet for the commercial products of the Soudan. The sudd obstructing the channels of the Nile affluents, consisting of masses of decayed vegetation, has been removed from the Bahr el Gebel, giving a free navigable channel from Rejaf to Omdurman, a distance of 1,200 miles. Half of the water issuing from the equatorial lakes which might reach Egypt is absorbed by the marshes that extend for a distance of 400 miles from Bor to Lake No. The cutting of the sudd had no effect in increasing the flow. In 1900, as well as in 1899, there was a failure of rains in the upper Nile valley, causing distress, which was aggravated by the ravages of locusts. The main supply of the White Nile in 1900 was furnished by the Sobat and to a less extent by the Bahr el Ghazal.

The development of the Soudan is the task now taken in hand by the Egyptian Government, but this does not preclude some further gradual relief of the fiscal burdens placed on the Egyptian taxpayers.

The opening of the Soudan to commerce has revived the gum trade of Kordofan. Cattle and sheep have become plentiful in that province. The country on the Blue Nile about Elifun is well cultivated and populous. Gedarif, in the vicinity of which large quantities of gum are gathered, has 30,000 inhabitants. The black soil suitable for cotton is not cultivated here nor at Gallabat, where population and animals are scarce, but the town is recovering and carries on trade in coffee, wax, honey, and rhinoceros hides. Everywhere in the Soudan whole districts are depopulated as the result of dervish rule, and consequently the soil lacks laborers, and the situation is rendered worse by the confusion in the ownership of land. The administration of the Soudan is likely to entail a heavy financial burden on Egypt for many years, as the process of recovery is necessarily slow. The difficulty of providing irrigation is a serious obstacle to the development of agriculture. The Government is making energetic efforts to improve the condition of the inhabitants. Great consideration is shown in the collection of taxes, from which land that is not irrigated is quite exempt. The Government has begun tentatively to buy the crops raised by the fellaheen with the object of encouraging agriculture. Commissions have been appointed to regulate and establish titles to real estate in town and country. Continuous possession for five years is held to be sufficient evidence of ownership. The prohibition against raising tobacco has been annulled. Disbanded Soudanese battalions have been colonized as an experiment on the Blue and White Niles. Tranquillity prevailed throughout the Soudan in 1901, there was a considerable decline in the price of foodstuffs, and other improvements in the condition of the country were noticeable.

Sir Reginald Wingate, the sirdar, inspected all the provinces of the Soudan in the first half of 1901. When Anglo-Egyptian posts were established in the Bahr el Ghazal the Congo State, which by the convention of 1894 obtained a lease of that province, but did not proceed to occupy it in consideration of French susceptibilities, reclaimed its rights under the lease. The Congo State leased to Great Britain in exchange the strip of territory between Lake Albert Edward and Lake Tanganyika, which was required for the exclusive British route from Cape Town to Cairo, but the British Government, in view of German and French objections to the alienation of Congo territory, refrained from taking possession. AngloEgyptian troops were not only posted in the parts of the Bahr el Ghazal which the Belgians had not occupied, but at Lado, where a Belgian garrison was in possession, the Egyptian Government taking the ground that Egypt after the fall of the dervish Government at Omdurman resumed all her former rights in the Soudan. The Belgian troops were not withdrawn, and the question was discussed diplomatically between the British and the Congo governments.

The anti-British sentiment still rife in Egypt was manifested in serious riots that occurred in Alexandria early in August. Arabi Pasha, the leader of the military revolt that led to the British occupation of Egypt in 1882, was pardoned by the Khedive in May, and returned from his long exile in Ceylon to pass the remainder of his life in his native land.

EXPOSITION, THE PAN - AMERICAN. This was held in Buffalo, N. Y., from May 1 to Nov. 2, 1901. (For the previous interstate expositions, see the list in the Annual Cyclopædia for 1898, page 249.)

Organization.-Soon after the Cotton States Exposition, held in Atlanta in 1895, the plan of organizing a Pan-American exposition on the Niagara frontier was conceived, to illustrate the progress of civilization in the Western Hemisphere during the nineteenth century. In 1897 the Pan-American Exposition Company was incorporated, and a site was selected on Cayuga island, near the village of La Salle, where a memorial stake was driven by President McKinley, in July, 1897. The war with Spain followed, and the enterprise was postponed; but on Dec. 5, 1898, a reorganization of the project, on a larger basis, with a new charter, was urged upon the community by Conrad Diehl, then mayor of Buffalo. A new charter was approved in January, 1899, and bills were introduced both in the national and the State Legislature, authorizing exhibits on the part of the nation and the State, which were approved, and in March, 1899, the Exposition Company was perfected.

Management.-The incorporators of the exposition elected a Board of Directors, who in turn elected officers of the company. These were as follow: President, John G. Milburn; Secretary, Edwin Fleming; Treasurer, George L. Williams. The executive officers were: Director-General, William I. Buchanan; Commissioner-General and Auditor, John B. Weber; Director of Concessions, Frederic W. Taylor; Commander of Police, John Byrne; Medical Director, Roswell Park; Director of Works, Newcomb Carlton; Superintendent of Landscape, Rudolf Ulrich; Superintendent of Electrical Exhibits, George F. Sever; Director of Fine Arts, William A. Coffin; Superintendent of Graphic Arts, Machinery, Transportation Exhibits, and Agricultural Implements, Thomas M. Moore: Superintendent of Liberal Arts, Selim H. Peabody; Super

intendent of Ethnology and Archeology, A. L. Benedict; Superintendent of Live Stock and of Dairy-Products and Agricultural Products, Frank A. Converse; Superintendent of Horticultural and Food-Products, Frederic W. Taylor; Superintend ent of Mines and Metallurgy, David T. Day; Superintendent of Manufactures, Algar M. Wheeler; Superintendent of Press Department, Mark Bennitt; Superintendent of Passenger Department, James V. Mahoney. Finances. The Pan American Exposition Company was organized with a capital stock of $2,500,000, with authority to issue bonds for a similar amount. The bill introduced into the New York Legislature, which was signed on March 1, 1899, appropriated $300,000 for a State building and exhibit, and Congress, on March 3, 1899, appropriated $300,000 for a Government building and exhibit. Citizens of Buffalo subscribed and paid for stock and bonds to the amount of $4,467,905.

Location. The original site on Cayuga island having been abandoned, the Board of Directors chose grounds in the northern part of Buffalo, within three miles of the business center of the city. The plot contained 350 acres, and its dimensions from north to south were about one mile, and from east to west about half a mile. Of this tract, 133 acres were improved park property, including a watercourse and an irregular and beautiful lake, half a. mile in length, which was described as the most beautiful interior lake in the country," and became one of the principal water features of the exposition. This site was considered the most accessible of any that could have been chosen, and it was reached over the electric street-railway system by means of transfers, so that it was within a twenty minutes' ride from the central portions of the city. A line of double-track steam railway, known as the New York Central Belt Line, encircled the city, and touched the northern boundary of the exposition grounds. By means of this line, access was had to all the steam railways entering Buffalo.

Buildings. The principal buildings were arranged around a broad court, having the form of an inverted letter T. The transverse section of this court, called the Esplanade, ran east and west, and there was a space of more than 1,700 feet between the extremes. The Court of Fountains, which was north of the transverse court, was 500 feet wide and 200 feet from north to south. The Aquatic Basin in this court was 225 feet wide by 565 feet long, and covered more than two acres. It contained numerous fountains, and was one of the most picturesque features. On the right was a subordinate court, known as the Court of Cypresses, while to the left, in similar design, was the Court of Lilies. Beyond the Court of Fountains was the famous Electric Tower, while to the right were the buildings devoted to agriculture and manufactures and the liberal arts, and to the left were the buildings devoted to electricity and machinery and transportation, these four being the largest of the exhibition buildings. At the lower end of the Esplanade were the pylons of the Triumphal Bridge, forming an entrance to the Esplanade when approached from the south. The ground was broken for the exposition on Sept. 26, 1899, and the first building to be erected was the administrative headquarters for the officers of the exposition, whose presence was required upon the grounds, to which the name of Service Building was given. Simultaneously with the erection of the great buildings was the excavating of a wide canal, more than a mile in length, and the crea

tion of small lagoons, while at the same time thousands of trees and shrubs were planted, in order to make the grounds attractive. The preparation of plans for the exposition was entrusted to a board of architects, composed of John M. Carrère, Chairman, of Carrère & Hastings, New York; John G. Howard, of Howard, Caldwell & Morgan, New York; Walter Cook, of Babb, Cook & Willard, New York; Robert S. Peabody, of Peabody & Stearns, Boston; George F. Shepley, of Shepley, Rutan & Coolidge, Boston; George Cary, Buffalo; August C. Esenwein, of Esenwein & Johnson, Buffalo; Edward B. Green, of Green & Wicks, Buffalo. The electrical effects were planned by Luther Stieringer, with Henry Rustin as engineer, while the landscape plan and all formal landscape work, including bridges and approaches, were under the direct supervision of John M. Carrère, chairman of the board. Rudolf Ulrich was the landscape gardener.

The style of architecture followed was a free adaptation of the Spanish Renaissance, chosen in graceful compliment to those Latin-American countries whose valued assistance had been sought and gained. No such aggregation of colonnades and pavilions, arcades and balconies, loggias, domes, lanterns, towers, minarets, flag standards, and finials was ever before seen under a northern sky. The color treatment was devised by C. Y. Turner, and gained for the exposition the name of "The Rainbow City," or "The Tinted City." It had for its purpose the harmonizing of the buildings, not only with one another, but with their surroundings, such as the sky, the grass, and the water. The colors symbolized the progression from the less civilized stage to the highest, and so the crudest colors were nearest the entrance, and as you proceeded farther into the grounds they became softer and more refined, until finally, at the Electric Tower, at the head of the Court of Fountains, the highest note of all was reached in the ivory-white and gold and delicate blue. The entire color scheme, as described by Mr. Turner at the time, is as follows:

"The horticultural group has orange as a basis for the color of the body of the building. On the Government Building a warm yellow is used for the plain surfaces. For the Music Hall I have used red, quite pure, as the foundation color. On the Ethnology Building, golden orange. On the Machinery and Transportation Building green was the basis. Opposite it, across the court, the Liberal Arts Building is a warm-gray color. The Electricity and Agricultural Buildings are different shades of light yellow, while the restaurant and entrances to the Stadium have a French gray as the basis, with a lighter shade of the same tint on the Propylæa. For the Electric Tower I reserved a light ivory. In the horticultural group I have used blue and white largely in the ornamental portions of the panels, pilasters, spandrils, etc., relieved now and again by brighter shades of rose and deep yellow. The Government Buildings have a mild gray for the structural portions to relieve the yellow, and in those buildings, where it is possible, the green note is introduced in the sashes and doors, blue on the dome, and gold on the smaller domes. Blue-green is on the dome of the Temple of Music, and is repeated again on the Ethnology Building. On the Machinery and Transportation Building red, yellow, and green are introduced in the great doorways and corner pavilions, and also are distributed through the towers, while blue and gold play a large part in the detail work of the Liberal Arts Building, especially on the ceilings of the colonnades and east and west entrances, and in the

great pediments of the north and south entrances. The yellow of the Electricity Building is relieved by gray trimmings and green doorways, which are elaborately enriched in their ornamentation by delicate shades of the prevailing tones used throughout the exposition. The Agricultural Building is warmer, and there are blue, yellow,

THE COURT OF FOUNTAINS.

and ivory, and stronger notes of red and green in the entrances. The restaurants are ivory and French gray. The sashes and doors are painted green, and the minarets and pinnacles are tipped with gold. The Propylæa, which curves across the north end of the grounds, has a wide-open arcade, the panels of which are enriched with brilliant red, where white statues are placed, while the panels above are a bright yellow. The ceilings are blue, and the trellis above is made a strong violet hue. Violet occurs again at the entrances from the railway station through the great arch. The Railway Transportation Building is in a French gray, with green roof and ivory and gold trimmings, while the Stadium, one of the most imposing buildings of the exposition, will be a light ivory-gray, with pale blue-green sashes and doors. The tower is a very light ivory, and is enriched in the capitals, brackets, finials, stars, pinnacles, etc., with gold, and is crowned with a gilded figure of the Goddess of Light. The panels have the brightest fresh blue-green we could make, and are intended to suggest the water as it curves over the crest at Niagara."

Considering the buildings more in detail, and beginning at the north entrance, we reach, first, the

Electric Tower, which was designed by John G. Howard, and was 375 feet high. The main body of the tower was 80 feet square and 200 feet high. The crown was in three parts, of diminishing proportions, the first of these being an arcaded loggia having wall surfaces brilliantly colored and richly ornamented in all details. Pavilionettes adorned each of the four corners and terminated in light, fantastic cupolas. Above the loggia was a high circular colonnade, entirely open, so as to allow the effect of the sky to be seen between the columns. A spiral stairway in the center led up to a domed cupola, on which was poised a figure, 16 feet high, designed by Herbert Adams and known as the Goddess of Light, which overlooked the entire exposition. At the base of the tower, and on the sides, were two colonnades, 75 feet high, which swept southward, forming a large semicircular space, opening toward the Court of Fountains. In the niches of these wings, running from west to east, were groups of statuary, representing Lake Michigan, by Louis A. Gudebrod; Lake Superior, by Philip Matiny; Lake Ontario, by Ralph Goddard; Lake St. Clair, by Henry Baerer; Lake Huron, by Philip Martiny; and Lake Erie, by Carl E. Tefft. The spandrels of the niche in the south face of the

tower and the smaller ones above the arch of entrance on the north side were modeled by Adolph A. Weinman, under the direction of Karl Bitter. They represented the four rivers-Niagara, Buffalo, St. Lawrence, and St. Clair. The keystones of these arches were modeled by the same sculptor. The groups ornamenting the pylons on the south side adjoining the water niche were modeled by George Gray Barnard, and typified The Great Waters in the Time of the Indian and The Great Waters in the Time of the White Man. The frieze, with children, garlands of fruit, and eagles, beneath the loggia at the top of the shaft, was executed by Karl Bitter, director of sculpture.

Agriculture Building.-This structure, east of the Electric Tower, was designed by George F. Shepley, and was 150 feet in length, facing the Court of Fountains, while the principal front, 500 feet in length, was on the Mall. The chief entrance was on this side, facing the Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building. Around this entrance was the greatest amount of enrichment, it being decorated with designs of fruits, vegetables, and flowers, expressing the character of the building, while large corbels were in the form of heads of animals of the field. A similar idea was shown in the decorations of the cornice. On the south side of the building, overlooking the Mall, was a loggia, formed of arches resting on single columns, with a ceiling of groined vaulting. The general treatment of the exterior was in the Spanish Renaissance.

Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building.— This building, designed by George F. Shepley, was southeast of the Court of Fountains, and separated from the Agriculture Building by the Mall. It occupied a space 350 by 500 feet, with a courtyard in the center, which was 132 by 170 feet, and was surrounded by a portico about 15 feet wide, with openings through semicircular arches, supported by square pillars. On the front of the building, between the arches, were the seals of the governments of the various South American republics, while over the entrance was a group of statuary typifying the arts and manufactures, designed by Bela Pratt. The building was entered from the middle of all four sides, and also from the pavilions on the corners. The south or upper front of the building faced the Court of Cypresses, and in the center of the front was the principal feature of the building, a great dome rising to a height of 130 feet, surrounded by four towers.

Electricity Building.-On the other side of the Electric Tower, opposite the Agriculture Building, was the Electricity Building, designed by Green & Wicks. It was 500 feet long from east to west, and 150 feet wide, covering 75,000 square feet. This building followed the Spanish-mission style of architecture, with Renaissance features. The entrances in the northern and southern façades consisted of arches between tall towers, while the towers carried ornamental cupolas. Surmounting the four corner towers were domed pavilions, and the spaces between the towers were embellished with colonnades and grilled windows. The roofs had broad, overhanging eaves, and the total height of the building was 160 feet.

Machinery and Transportation. This building was directly south of the Electricity Building, and was on the west side of the Court of Fountains. It was designed by Green & Wicks, who followed the Spanish-American Renaissance style of architecture. Its dimensions were 500 feet from east to west, and 300 feet from north to south. The main entrances on the north and south façade were flanked on either side by tall towers having open lanterns and an intricate detail of plastic